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Automated ICD coding involves assigning standardized diagnostic codes to clinical narratives. The vast label space and extreme class imbalance continue to challenge precise prediction. To address these issues, LabGraph is introduced -- a…

Machine Learning · Computer Science 2026-01-13 Xiaoxiao Deng

The International Classification of Diseases (ICD) system is the international standard for classifying diseases and procedures during a healthcare encounter and is widely used for healthcare reporting and management purposes. Assigning…

Computation and Language · Computer Science 2022-04-25 George Michalopoulos , Michal Malyska , Nicola Sahar , Alexander Wong , Helen Chen

Codification of free-text clinical narratives have long been recognised to be beneficial for secondary uses such as funding, insurance claim processing and research. The current scenario of assigning codes is a manual process which is very…

Computation and Language · Computer Science 2021-07-23 Rajvir Kaur , Jeewani Anupama Ginige , Oliver Obst

Recent advancements in natural language processing (NLP) have led to automation in various domains. However, clinical NLP often relies on benchmark datasets that may not reflect real-world scenarios accurately. Automatic ICD coding, a vital…

Computation and Language · Computer Science 2024-07-25 Abhijith R. Beeravolu , Mirjam Jonkman , Sami Azam , Friso De Boer

Coding morbidity data using international standard diagnostic classifications is increasingly important and still challenging. Clinical coders and physicians assign codes to patient episodes based on their interpretation of case notes or…

Other Computer Science · Computer Science 2025-03-10 Elena Cardillo , Lucilla Frattura

Medical coding is essential for standardizing clinical data and communication but is often time-consuming and prone to errors. Traditional Natural Language Processing (NLP) methods struggle with automating coding due to the large label…

Clinical notes are unstructured text generated by clinicians during patient encounters. Clinical notes are usually accompanied by a set of metadata codes from the International Classification of Diseases(ICD). ICD code is an important code…

Artificial Intelligence · Computer Science 2021-11-12 Tak-Sung Heo , Yongmin Yoo , Yeongjoon Park , Byeong-Cheol Jo , Kyungsun Kim

Automatically associating ICD codes with electronic health data is a well-known NLP task in medical research. NLP has evolved significantly in recent years with the emergence of pre-trained language models based on Transformers…

Computation and Language · Computer Science 2023-04-07 Yakini Tchouka , Jean-François Couchot , David Laiymani , Philippe Selles , Azzedine Rahmani

ICD coding is designed to assign the disease codes to electronic health records (EHRs) upon discharge, which is crucial for billing and clinical statistics. In an attempt to improve the effectiveness and efficiency of manual coding, many…

Computation and Language · Computer Science 2023-05-31 Zichen Liu , Xuyuan Liu , Yanlong Wen , Guoqing Zhao , Fen Xia , Xiaojie Yuan

Automated medical coding is a process of codifying clinical notes to appropriate diagnosis and procedure codes automatically from the standard taxonomies such as ICD (International Classification of Diseases) and CPT (Current Procedure…

Machine Learning · Computer Science 2022-07-15 Jeshuren Chelladurai , Sudarsun Santhiappan , Balaraman Ravindran

Documentation errors increase healthcare costs and cause unnecessary patient deaths. As the standard language for diagnoses and billing, ICD codes serve as the foundation for medical documentation worldwide. Despite the prevalence of…

Sound · Computer Science 2018-11-28 Albert Haque , Corinna Fukushima

Accurate International Classification of Diseases (ICD) coding is critical for clinical documentation, billing, and healthcare analytics, yet it remains a labour-intensive and error-prone task. Although large language models (LLMs) show…

Artificial Intelligence · Computer Science 2025-09-24 Hong-Jie Dai , Zheng-Hao Li , An-Tai Lu , Bo-Tsz Shain , Ming-Ta Li , Tatheer Hussain Mir , Kuang-Te Wang , Min-I Su , Pei-Kang Liu , Ming-Ju Tsai

The vast majority of research in computer assisted medical coding focuses on coding at the document level, but a substantial proportion of medical coding in the real world involves coding at the level of clinical encounters, each of which…

Computation and Language · Computer Science 2019-11-19 Han-Chin Shing , Guoli Wang , Philip Resnik

Clinical coding is a critical task in healthcare, although traditional methods for automating clinical coding may not provide sufficient explicit evidence for coders in production environments. This evidence is crucial, as medical coders…

Computation and Language · Computer Science 2025-04-08 Leonor Barreiros , Isabel Coutinho , Gonçalo M. Correia , Bruno Martins

Clinical interactions are initially recorded and documented in free text medical notes. ICD coding is the task of classifying and coding all diagnoses, symptoms and procedures associated with a patient's visit. The process is often manual…

Information Retrieval · Computer Science 2020-06-09 Zachariah Zhang , Jingshu Liu , Narges Razavian

In order to submit a claim to insurance companies, a doctor needs to code a patient encounter with both the diagnosis (ICDs) and procedures performed (CPTs) in an Electronic Health Record (EHR). Identifying and applying relevant procedures…

Machine Learning · Statistics 2021-12-30 Hasham Ul Haq , Rameel Ahmad , Sibt Ul Hussain

Medical coding, the translation of unstructured clinical text into standardized medical codes, is a crucial but time-consuming healthcare practice. Though large language models (LLM) could automate the coding process and improve the…

Computation and Language · Computer Science 2025-03-25 John Wu , David Wu , Jimeng Sun

Patent classification aims to assign multiple International Patent Classification (IPC) codes to a given patent. Recent methods for automatically classifying patents mainly focus on analyzing the text descriptions of patents. However, apart…

Artificial Intelligence · Computer Science 2024-06-21 Tao Zou , Le Yu , Junchen Ye , Leilei Sun , Bowen Du , Deqing Wang

The task of automatically coding the International Classification of Diseases (ICD) in the medical field has been well-established and has received much attention. Automatic coding of the ICD in the medical field has been successful in…

Computation and Language · Computer Science 2026-03-11 Xinxin You , Xien Liu , Xue Yang , Ziyi Wang , Ji Wu

Past studies on the ICD coding problem focus on predicting clinical codes primarily based on the discharge summary. This covers only a small fraction of the notes generated during each hospital stay and leaves potential for improving…

Machine Learning · Computer Science 2023-02-27 Clarence Boon Liang Ng , Diogo Santos , Marek Rei