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Annotated data is an essential ingredient in natural language processing for training and evaluating machine learning models. It is therefore very desirable for the annotations to be of high quality. Recent work, however, has shown that…

Computation and Language · Computer Science 2022-09-27 Jan-Christoph Klie , Bonnie Webber , Iryna Gurevych

Hate speech annotation is costly, subjective, and prone to annotator disagreement, making large-scale dataset construction challenging. We systematically analyze how well large language models (LLMs) align with human judgments across ten…

Computation and Language · Computer Science 2026-05-27 Mohammad Amine Jradi , Faeze Ghorbanpour , Alexander Fraser

Ensuring the safety of Generative AI requires a nuanced understanding of pluralistic viewpoints. In this paper, we introduce a novel data-driven approach for analyzing ordinal safety ratings in pluralistic settings. Specifically, we address…

In machine learning, "ground truth" refers to the assumed correct labels used to train and evaluate models. However, the foundational "ground truth" paradigm rests on a positivistic fallacy that treats human disagreement as technical noise…

Artificial Intelligence · Computer Science 2026-04-28 Sheza Munir , Benjamin Mah , Krisha Kalsi , Shivani Kapania , Julian Posada , Edith Law , Ding Wang , Syed Ishtiaque Ahmed

Detection of hate speech has been formulated as a standalone application of NLP and different approaches have been adopted for identifying the target groups, obtaining raw data, defining the labeling process, choosing the detection…

Computation and Language · Computer Science 2023-09-07 Vitthal Bhandari

Annotator disagreement is ubiquitous in natural language processing (NLP) tasks. There are multiple reasons for such disagreements, including the subjectivity of the task, difficult cases, unclear guidelines, and so on. Rather than simply…

Computation and Language · Computer Science 2023-10-24 Naihao Deng , Xinliang Frederick Zhang , Siyang Liu , Winston Wu , Lu Wang , Rada Mihalcea

We examine diverging preferences in human-labeled preference datasets. We develop a taxonomy of disagreement sources spanning ten categories across four high-level classes and find that the majority of disagreements are due to factors such…

Computation and Language · Computer Science 2026-03-04 Michael JQ Zhang , Zhilin Wang , Jena D. Hwang , Yi Dong , Olivier Delalleau , Yejin Choi , Eunsol Choi , Xiang Ren , Valentina Pyatkin

Missing diversity, equity, and inclusion elements in affective computing datasets directly affect the accuracy and fairness of emotion recognition algorithms across different groups. A literature review reveals how affective computing…

Human-Computer Interaction · Computer Science 2023-09-20 Tessa Verhoef , Eduard Fosch-Villaronga

Data annotation remains the sine qua non of machine learning and AI. Recent empirical work on data annotation has begun to highlight the importance of rater diversity for fairness, model performance, and new lines of research have begun to…

Artificial Intelligence · Computer Science 2024-02-13 Andrew Smart , Ding Wang , Ellis Monk , Mark Díaz , Atoosa Kasirzadeh , Erin Van Liemt , Sonja Schmer-Galunder

Natural language processing research has begun to embrace the notion of annotator subjectivity, motivated by variations in labelling. This approach understands each annotator's view as valid, which can be highly suitable for tasks that…

Computation and Language · Computer Science 2024-03-05 Amanda Cercas Curry , Gavin Abercrombie , Zeerak Talat

When annotators disagree, predicting the labels given by individual annotators can capture nuances overlooked by traditional label aggregation. We introduce three approaches to predicting individual annotator ratings on the toxicity of text…

Computation and Language · Computer Science 2024-10-17 Harbani Jaggi , Kashyap Murali , Eve Fleisig , Erdem Bıyık

At the foundation of scientific evaluation is the labor-intensive process of peer review. This critical task requires participants to consume vast amounts of highly technical text. Prior work has annotated different aspects of review…

In recent years, image and video manipulations with Deepfake have become a severe concern for security and society. Many detection models and datasets have been proposed to detect Deepfake data reliably. However, there is an increased…

Computer Vision and Pattern Recognition · Computer Science 2024-03-12 Ying Xu , Philipp Terhörst , Kiran Raja , Marius Pedersen

This paper introduces a new large consent-driven dataset aimed at assisting in the evaluation of algorithmic bias and robustness of computer vision and audio speech models in regards to 11 attributes that are self-provided or labeled by…

Computer Vision and Pattern Recognition · Computer Science 2023-03-10 Bilal Porgali , Vítor Albiero , Jordan Ryda , Cristian Canton Ferrer , Caner Hazirbas

AI systems depend on the invisible and undervalued labor of data workers, who are often treated as interchangeable units rather than collaborators with meaningful expertise. Critical scholars and practitioners have proposed alternative…

Digital dehumanization, although a critical issue, remains largely overlooked within the field of computational linguistics and Natural Language Processing. The prevailing approach in current research concentrating primarily on a single…

Computation and Language · Computer Science 2025-10-22 Dennis Assenmacher , Paloma Piot , Katarina Laken , David Jurgens , Claudia Wagner

In this paper, we introduce a new Czech subjectivity dataset of 10k manually annotated subjective and objective sentences from movie reviews and descriptions. Our prime motivation is to provide a reliable dataset that can be used with the…

Computation and Language · Computer Science 2022-05-02 Pavel Přibáň , Josef Steinberger

NLP datasets annotated with human judgments are rife with disagreements between the judges. This is especially true for tasks depending on subjective judgments such as sentiment analysis or offensive language detection. Particularly in…

Nowadays, social media is pivotal in shaping public discourse, especially on polarizing issues like vaccination, where diverse moral perspectives influence individual opinions. In NLP, data scarcity and complexity of psycholinguistic tasks,…

Computation and Language · Computer Science 2025-02-06 Tunazzina Islam , Dan Goldwasser

Text-based automated Cognitive Distortion detection is a challenging task due to its subjective nature, with low agreement scores observed even among expert human annotators, leading to unreliable annotations. We explore the use of Large…

Computation and Language · Computer Science 2026-05-21 Neha Sharma , Navneet Agarwal , Kairit Sirts