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Existing watermarking algorithms are vulnerable to paraphrase attacks because of their token-level design. To address this issue, we propose SemStamp, a robust sentence-level semantic watermarking algorithm based on locality-sensitive…

Large language model (LLM) watermarking has shown promise in detecting AI-generated content and mitigating misuse, with prior work claiming robustness against paraphrasing and text editing. In this paper, we argue that existing evaluations…

Cryptography and Security · Computer Science 2026-05-15 Hanbo Huang , Yiran Zhang , Hao Zheng , Xuan Gong , Yihan Li , Lin Liu , Zhuotao Liu , Shiyu Liang

The impressive performances of Large Language Models (LLMs) and their immense potential for commercialization have given rise to serious concerns over the Intellectual Property (IP) of their training data. In particular, the synthetic texts…

Machine Learning · Computer Science 2024-09-26 Jingtan Wang , Xinyang Lu , Zitong Zhao , Zhongxiang Dai , Chuan-Sheng Foo , See-Kiong Ng , Bryan Kian Hsiang Low

Despite progress in watermarking algorithms for large language models (LLMs), real-world deployment remains limited. We argue that this gap stems from misaligned incentives among LLM providers, platforms, and end users, which manifest as…

Cryptography and Security · Computer Science 2026-04-22 Yepeng Liu , Xuandong Zhao , Dawn Song , Gregory W. Wornell , Yuheng Bu

Tokenization is a hardcoded compression step which remains in the training pipeline of Large Language Models (LLMs), despite a general trend towards architectures becoming increasingly end-to-end. Prior work has shown promising results at…

Machine Learning · Computer Science 2026-02-17 Sam Dauncey , Roger Wattenhofer

Recent strides in large language models (LLMs) have yielded remarkable performance, leveraging reinforcement learning from human feedback (RLHF) to significantly enhance generation and alignment capabilities. However, RLHF encounters…

Computation and Language · Computer Science 2024-05-31 Kuo Liao , Shuang Li , Meng Zhao , Liqun Liu , Mengge Xue , Zhenyu Hu , Honglin Han , Chengguo Yin

Large Language Models (LLMs) have achieved human-level fluency in text generation, making it difficult to distinguish between human-written and LLM-generated texts. This poses a growing risk of misuse of LLMs and demands the development of…

Computation and Language · Computer Science 2024-02-20 Ryuto Koike , Masahiro Kaneko , Naoaki Okazaki

We revisit watermarking techniques based on pre-trained deep networks, in the light of self-supervised approaches. We present a way to embed both marks and binary messages into their latent spaces, leveraging data augmentation at marking…

Computer Vision and Pattern Recognition · Computer Science 2022-03-24 Pierre Fernandez , Alexandre Sablayrolles , Teddy Furon , Hervé Jégou , Matthijs Douze

Recent advancements in large language models (LLMs) have highlighted the risk of misusing them, raising the need for accurate detection of LLM-generated content. In response, a viable solution is to inject imperceptible identifiers into…

Computation and Language · Computer Science 2025-02-11 Minjia Mao , Dongjun Wei , Zeyu Chen , Xiao Fang , Michael Chau

Large Language Models (LLMs) have transformed natural language processing, demonstrating impressive capabilities across diverse tasks. However, deploying these models introduces critical risks related to intellectual property violations and…

Cryptography and Security · Computer Science 2025-12-24 Kieu Dang , Phung Lai , NhatHai Phan , Yelong Shen , Ruoming Jin , Abdallah Khreishah , My T. Thai

Watermarking embeds information into digital content like images, audio, or text, imperceptible to humans but robustly detectable by specific algorithms. This technology has important applications in many challenges of the industry such as…

Cryptography and Security · Computer Science 2025-02-11 Pierre Fernandez

Learning to rank (LTR) plays a crucial role in various Information Retrieval (IR) tasks. Although supervised LTR methods based on fine-grained relevance labels (e.g., document-level annotations) have achieved significant success, their…

Information Retrieval · Computer Science 2025-08-21 Yiteng Tu , Zhichao Xu , Tao Yang , Weihang Su , Yujia Zhou , Yiqun Liu , Fen Lin , Qin Liu , Qingyao Ai

With the rapid advancement and extensive application of artificial intelligence technology, large language models (LLMs) are extensively used to enhance production, creativity, learning, and work efficiency across various domains. However,…

Cryptography and Security · Computer Science 2024-09-04 Yuqing Liang , Jiancheng Xiao , Wensheng Gan , Philip S. Yu

We study the problem of multi-bit watermarking for large language models (LLMs). We introduce a block-autoregressive model inspired by multi-token prediction, in which the encoder has limited non-causal access to token distributions within…

Information Theory · Computer Science 2026-05-19 Sidong Guo , Tyler Kann , Teodora Baluta , Matthieu R. Bloch

Large language model (LLM) watermarking has emerged as a promising approach for detecting and attributing AI-generated text, yet its robustness to black-box spoofing remains insufficiently evaluated. Existing evaluation methods often demand…

Cryptography and Security · Computer Science 2026-04-14 Hanbo Huang , Xuan Gong , Yiran Zhang , Hao Zheng , Shiyu Liang

As large language models (LLMs) reach human-like fluency, reliably distinguishing AI-generated text from human authorship becomes increasingly difficult. While watermarks already exist for LLMs, they often lack flexibility and struggle with…

Computation and Language · Computer Science 2025-06-18 Georg Niess , Roman Kern

Existing reinforcement learning strategies based on outcome supervision have proven effective in enhancing the performance of large language models(LLMs) for code generation. While reinforcement learning based on process supervision has…

Software Engineering · Computer Science 2025-02-05 Yufan Ye , Ting Zhang , Wenbin Jiang , Hua Huang

Code-generating Large Language Models (LLMs) have become essential tools in modern software development, enhancing productivity and accelerating development. This paper aims to investigate the fine-tuning of code-generating LLMs using…

Software Engineering · Computer Science 2025-05-06 Marina Sakharova , Abhinav Anand , Mira Mezini

We show the viability of tackling misuses of large language models beyond the identification of machine-generated text. While existing zero-bit watermark methods focus on detection only, some malicious misuses demand tracing the adversary…

Computation and Language · Computer Science 2024-03-21 KiYoon Yoo , Wonhyuk Ahn , Nojun Kwak

This paper introduces a blind watermarking based on a convolutional neural network (CNN). We propose an iterative learning framework to secure robustness of watermarking. One loop of learning process consists of the following three stages:…

Multimedia · Computer Science 2019-03-21 Seung-Min Mun , Seung-Hun Nam , Han-Ul Jang , Dongkyu Kim , Heung-Kyu Lee