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Digital watermarking is a promising solution for mitigating some of the risks arising from the misuse of automatically generated text. These approaches either embed non-specific watermarks to allow for the detection of any text generated by…

Cryptography and Security · Computer Science 2025-06-23 Zihao Fu , Chris Russell

Existing watermarking methods for large language models (LLMs) mainly embed watermark by adjusting the token sampling prediction or post-processing, lacking intrinsic coupling with LLMs, which may significantly reduce the semantic quality…

Cryptography and Security · Computer Science 2025-10-17 Siyuan Bao , Ying Shi , Zhiguang Yang , Hanzhou Wu , Xinpeng Zhang

The rapid advancement of LLMs (Large Language Models) has established them as a foundational technology for many AI and ML-powered human computer interactions. A critical challenge in this context is the attribution of LLM-generated text --…

Cryptography and Security · Computer Science 2026-02-27 Jarosław Janas , Paweł Morawiecki , Josef Pieprzyk

With the widespread adoption of Large Language Models (LLMs), concerns about potential misuse have emerged. To this end, watermarking has been adapted to LLM, enabling a simple and effective way to detect and monitor generated text.…

Cryptography and Security · Computer Science 2024-07-22 Duy C. Hoang , Hung T. Q. Le , Rui Chu , Ping Li , Weijie Zhao , Yingjie Lao , Khoa D. Doan

Generative images have proliferated on Web platforms in social media and online copyright distribution scenarios, and semantic watermarking has increasingly been integrated into diffusion models to support reliable provenance tracking and…

Machine Learning · Computer Science 2026-02-26 Zheng Gao , Xiaoyu Li , Zhicheng Bao , Xiaoyan Feng , Jiaojiao Jiang

In the rapidly evolving domain of artificial intelligence, safeguarding the intellectual property of Large Language Models (LLMs) is increasingly crucial. Current watermarking techniques against model extraction attacks, which rely on…

Cryptography and Security · Computer Science 2024-05-03 Minhao Bai , Kaiyi Pang , Yongfeng Huang

In this paper, we investigate the recent state-of-the-art schemes for watermarking large language models (LLMs) outputs. These techniques are claimed to be robust, scalable and production-grade, aimed at promoting responsible usage of LLMs.…

Cryptography and Security · Computer Science 2026-05-11 Jonathan Hong Jin Ng , Anh Tu Ngo , Anupam Chattopadhyay

Advances in generative models have made it possible for AI-generated text, code, and images to mirror human-generated content in many applications. Watermarking, a technique that aims to embed information in the output of a model to verify…

Cryptography and Security · Computer Science 2024-11-14 Qi Pang , Shengyuan Hu , Wenting Zheng , Virginia Smith

Watermarking generative-AI systems, such as LLMs, has gained considerable interest, driven by their enhanced capabilities across a wide range of tasks. Although current approaches have demonstrated that small, context-dependent shifts in…

Computation and Language · Computer Science 2024-03-29 Piotr Molenda , Adian Liusie , Mark J. F. Gales

Large-language models (LLMs) are now able to produce text that is, in many cases, seemingly indistinguishable from human-generated content. This has fueled the development of watermarks that imprint a ``signal'' in LLM-generated text with…

Cryptography and Security · Computer Science 2025-05-15 Dor Tsur , Carol Xuan Long , Claudio Mayrink Verdun , Hsiang Hsu , Haim Permuter , Flavio P. Calmon

Watermarking acts as a critical safeguard in text generated by Large Language Models (LLMs). By embedding identifiable signals into model outputs, watermarking enables reliable attribution and enhances the security of machine-generated…

Computation and Language · Computer Science 2026-05-29 Yukang Lin , Jiahao Shao , Shuoran Jiang , Wentao Zhu , Bingjie Lu , Xiangping Wu , Joanna Siebert , Qingcai Chen

We present the first in depth study on the robustness of existing watermarking techniques applied to code generated by large language models (LLMs). As LLMs increasingly contribute to software development, watermarking has emerged as a…

Cryptography and Security · Computer Science 2025-08-21 Tarun Suresh , Shubham Ugare , Gagandeep Singh , Sasa Misailovic

Large Language Models (LLMs) have demonstrated remarkable capabilities of generating texts resembling human language. However, they can be misused by criminals to create deceptive content, such as fake news and phishing emails, which raises…

Cryptography and Security · Computer Science 2025-01-29 Wenjie Qu , Wengrui Zheng , Tianyang Tao , Dong Yin , Yanze Jiang , Zhihua Tian , Wei Zou , Jinyuan Jia , Jiaheng Zhang

Watermarking large language models (LLMs) is vital for preventing their misuse, including the fabrication of fake news, plagiarism, and spam. It is especially important to watermark LLM-generated code, as it often contains intellectual…

Cryptography and Security · Computer Science 2025-12-18 Li Lin , Siyuan Xin , Yang Cao , Xiaochun Cao

We study how to watermark LLM outputs, i.e. embedding algorithmically detectable signals into LLM-generated text to track misuse. Unlike the current mainstream methods that work with a fixed LLM, we expand the watermark design space by…

Machine Learning · Computer Science 2024-03-19 Xiaojun Xu , Yuanshun Yao , Yang Liu

The rapid development of LLMs has raised concerns about their potential misuse, leading to various watermarking schemes that typically offer high detectability. However, existing watermarking techniques often face trade-off between…

Cryptography and Security · Computer Science 2025-10-21 Chenrui Wang , Junyi Shu , Billy Chiu , Yu Li , Saleh Alharbi , Min Zhang , Jing Li

As large language models (LLMs) generate texts with increasing fluency and realism, there is a growing need to identify the source of texts to prevent the abuse of LLMs. Text watermarking techniques have proven reliable in distinguishing…

Computation and Language · Computer Science 2024-04-04 Lean Wang , Wenkai Yang , Deli Chen , Hao Zhou , Yankai Lin , Fandong Meng , Jie Zhou , Xu Sun

LLM watermarks allow tracing AI-generated texts by inserting a detectable signal into their generated content. Recent works have proposed a wide range of watermarking algorithms, each with distinct designs, usually built using a bottom-up…

Cryptography and Security · Computer Science 2026-02-09 Thibaud Gloaguen , Robin Staab , Nikola Jovanović , Martin Vechev

We study the problem of watermarking large language models (LLMs) generated text -- one of the most promising approaches for addressing the safety challenges of LLM usage. In this paper, we propose a rigorous theoretical framework to…

Computation and Language · Computer Science 2023-10-16 Xuandong Zhao , Prabhanjan Ananth , Lei Li , Yu-Xiang Wang

LLMs now exhibit human-like skills in various fields, leading to worries about misuse. Thus, detecting generated text is crucial. However, passive detection methods are stuck in domain specificity and limited adversarial robustness. To…

Computation and Language · Computer Science 2023-05-17 Xi Yang , Kejiang Chen , Weiming Zhang , Chang Liu , Yuang Qi , Jie Zhang , Han Fang , Nenghai Yu