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Large Language Models (LLMs) have demonstrated remarkable self-improvement capabilities, whereby models iteratively revise their outputs through self-generated feedback. While this reflective mechanism has shown promise in enhancing task…

Computation and Language · Computer Science 2025-04-07 Liangjie Huang , Dawei Li , Huan Liu , Lu Cheng

Visual captioning benchmarks have become outdated with the emergence of modern multimodal large language models (MLLMs), as the brief ground-truth sentences and traditional metrics fail to assess detailed captions effectively. While recent…

Computer Vision and Pattern Recognition · Computer Science 2025-11-27 Zhihang Liu , Chen-Wei Xie , Bin Wen , Feiwu Yu , Jixuan Chen , Pandeng Li , Boqiang Zhang , Nianzu Yang , Yinglu Li , Zuan Gao , Yun Zheng , Hongtao Xie

Model-based, reference-free evaluation metrics have been proposed as a fast and cost-effective approach to evaluate Natural Language Generation (NLG) systems. Despite promising recent results, we find evidence that reference-free evaluation…

Computation and Language · Computer Science 2022-04-22 Esin Durmus , Faisal Ladhak , Tatsunori Hashimoto

The growth of deep learning (DL) relies heavily on huge amounts of labelled data for tasks such as natural language processing and computer vision. Specifically, in image-to-text or image-to-image pipelines, opinion (sentiment) may be…

Computer Vision and Pattern Recognition · Computer Science 2024-09-17 Aleksei Krotov , Alison Tebo , Dylan K. Picart , Aaron Dean Algave

Image captioning aims at automatically generating descriptions of an image in natural language. This is a challenging problem in the field of artificial intelligence that has recently received significant attention in the computer vision…

Computer Vision and Pattern Recognition · Computer Science 2019-04-02 Hassan Maleki Galandouz , Mohsen Ebrahimi Moghaddam , Mehrnoush Shamsfard

The image captioning task is about to generate suitable descriptions from images. For this task there can be several challenges such as accuracy, fluency and diversity. However there are few metrics that can cover all these properties while…

Computer Vision and Pattern Recognition · Computer Science 2020-12-15 Chao Zeng , Sam Kwong

Despite significant advancements in caption generation, existing evaluation metrics often fail to capture the full quality or fine-grained details of captions. This is mainly due to their reliance on non-specific human-written references or…

Computer Vision and Pattern Recognition · Computer Science 2025-07-31 Sara Sarto , Nicholas Moratelli , Marcella Cornia , Lorenzo Baraldi , Rita Cucchiara

With recent advancements in Large Multimodal Models (LMMs) across various domains, a novel prompting method called visual referring prompting has emerged, showing significant potential in enhancing human-computer interaction within…

Computer Vision and Pattern Recognition · Computer Science 2023-12-08 Zongjie Li , Chaozheng Wang , Chaowei Liu , Pingchuan Ma , Daoyuan Wu , Shuai Wang , Cuiyun Gao

Image captioning has become an essential Vision & Language research task. It is about predicting the most accurate caption given a specific image or video. The research community has achieved impressive results by continuously proposing new…

Computer Vision and Pattern Recognition · Computer Science 2025-01-28 Guillermo Ruiz , Tania Ramírez , Daniela Moctezuma

Large language models (LLMs) make it easy to rewrite a text in any style -- e.g. to make it more polite, persuasive, or more positive -- but evaluation thereof is not straightforward. A challenge lies in measuring content preservation: that…

Computation and Language · Computer Science 2025-09-18 Amalie Brogaard Pauli , Isabelle Augenstein , Ira Assent

The task of generating natural language descriptions from images has received a lot of attention in recent years. Consequently, it is becoming increasingly important to evaluate such image captioning approaches in an automatic manner. In…

Computation and Language · Computer Science 2016-12-23 Mert Kilickaya , Aykut Erdem , Nazli Ikizler-Cinbis , Erkut Erdem

Automatic evaluation comparing candidate translations to human-generated paraphrases of reference translations has recently been proposed by Freitag et al. When used in place of original references, the paraphrased versions produce metric…

Computation and Language · Computer Science 2020-10-21 Markus Freitag , George Foster , David Grangier , Colin Cherry

Reference-free evaluation metrics for grammatical error correction (GEC) have achieved high correlation with human judgments. However, these metrics are not designed to evaluate adversarial systems that aim to obtain unjustifiably high…

Computation and Language · Computer Science 2025-10-01 Takumi Goto , Yusuke Sakai , Taro Watanabe

Existing reference-free metrics have obvious limitations for evaluating controlled text generation models. Unsupervised metrics can only provide a task-agnostic evaluation result which correlates weakly with human judgments, whereas…

Computation and Language · Computer Science 2022-12-06 Pei Ke , Hao Zhou , Yankai Lin , Peng Li , Jie Zhou , Xiaoyan Zhu , Minlie Huang

Cross-lingual image captioning, with its ability to caption an unlabeled image in a target language other than English, is an emerging topic in the multimedia field. In order to save the precious human resource from re-writing reference…

Computer Vision and Pattern Recognition · Computer Science 2020-12-10 Aozhu Chen , Xinyi Huang , Hailan Lin , Xirong Li

Large language models (LLMs) are increasingly used as evaluators for natural language generation, applying human-defined rubrics to assess system outputs. However, human rubrics are often static and misaligned with how models internally…

Computation and Language · Computer Science 2026-02-10 Clemencia Siro , Pourya Aliannejadi , Mohammad Aliannejadi

Pretraining-based (PT-based) automatic evaluation metrics (e.g., BERTScore and BARTScore) have been widely used in several sentence generation tasks (e.g., machine translation and text summarization) due to their better correlation with…

Computation and Language · Computer Science 2022-11-04 Peiyuan Gong , Xuebo Liu , Heyan Huang , Min Zhang

Work on instruction-tuned Large Language Models (LLMs) has used automatic methods based on text overlap and LLM judgments as cost-effective alternatives to human evaluation. In this paper, we perform a meta-evaluation of such methods and…

Computation and Language · Computer Science 2024-10-03 Ehsan Doostmohammadi , Oskar Holmström , Marco Kuhlmann

While reinforcement learning with verifiable rewards (RLVR) is effective to improve the reasoning ability of large language models (LLMs), its reliance on human-annotated labels leads to the scaling up dilemma, especially for complex tasks.…

Machine Learning · Computer Science 2026-03-17 Zizhuo Zhang , Jianing Zhu , Xinmu Ge , Zihua Zhao , Zhanke Zhou , Xuan Li , Xiao Feng , Jiangchao Yao , Bo Han

Image captioning evaluation remains a significant challenge, as vision-language models evolve toward more challenging capabilities such as generating long-form and context-rich descriptions. State-of-the-art evaluation metrics involve…

Computer Vision and Pattern Recognition · Computer Science 2026-05-22 Gonçalo Gomes , Bruno Martins , Chrysoula Zerva