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Despite its widespread adoption, Adam's advantage over Stochastic Gradient Descent (SGD) lacks a comprehensive theoretical explanation. This paper investigates Adam's sensitivity to rotations of the parameter space. We observe that Adam's…

Diagonal preconditioners are computationally feasible approximate to second-order optimizers, which have shown significant promise in accelerating training of deep learning models. Two predominant approaches are based on Adam and…

Machine Learning · Computer Science 2025-10-16 Bingbin Liu , Rachit Bansal , Depen Morwani , Nikhil Vyas , David Alvarez-Melis , Sham M. Kakade

Convergence and convergence rate analyses of adaptive methods, such as Adaptive Moment Estimation (Adam) and its variants, have been widely studied for nonconvex optimization. The analyses are based on assumptions that the expected or…

Machine Learning · Computer Science 2022-06-28 Hideaki Iiduka

Many adaptive optimization methods have been proposed and used in deep learning, in which Adam is regarded as the default algorithm and widely used in many deep learning frameworks. Recently, many variants of Adam, such as Adabound, RAdam…

Machine Learning · Computer Science 2020-11-05 Wei Yuan , Kai-Xin Gao

In this paper, we provide a rigorous proof of convergence of the Adaptive Moment Estimate (Adam) algorithm for a wide class of optimization objectives. Despite the popularity and efficiency of the Adam algorithm in training deep neural…

Optimization and Control · Mathematics 2023-11-08 Haochuan Li , Alexander Rakhlin , Ali Jadbabaie

We provide a simple proof of convergence covering both the Adam and Adagrad adaptive optimization algorithms when applied to smooth (possibly non-convex) objective functions with bounded gradients. We show that in expectation, the squared…

Machine Learning · Statistics 2022-10-18 Alexandre Défossez , Léon Bottou , Francis Bach , Nicolas Usunier

We study optimal diagonal preconditioning using the classical worst-case $\kappa$-condition number and the averaging-based $\omega$-condition number. For the $\kappa$-optimal preconditioning problem, we derive an affine-based pseudoconvex…

Optimization and Control · Mathematics 2026-05-01 Saeed Ghadimi , Woosuk L. Jung , Arnesh Sujanani , David Torregrosa-Belén , Henry Wolkowicz

In this paper, we study the convergence of the Adaptive Moment Estimation (Adam) algorithm under unconstrained non-convex smooth stochastic optimizations. Despite the widespread usage in machine learning areas, its theoretical properties…

Optimization and Control · Mathematics 2023-11-06 Yusu Hong , Junhong Lin

Adam is one of the most influential adaptive stochastic algorithms for training deep neural networks, which has been pointed out to be divergent even in the simple convex setting via a few simple counterexamples. Many attempts, such as…

Machine Learning · Computer Science 2022-08-09 Congliang Chen , Li Shen , Fangyu Zou , Wei Liu

Adam is a commonly used stochastic optimization algorithm in machine learning. However, its convergence is still not fully understood, especially in the non-convex setting. This paper focuses on exploring hyperparameter settings for the…

Optimization and Control · Mathematics 2025-02-12 Meixuan He , Yuqing Liang , Jinlan Liu , Dongpo Xu

This paper provides the first tight convergence analyses for RMSProp and Adam in non-convex optimization under the most relaxed assumptions of coordinate-wise generalized smoothness and affine noise variance. We first analyze RMSProp, which…

Machine Learning · Statistics 2025-03-11 Qi Zhang , Yi Zhou , Shaofeng Zou

Adam is widely adopted in practical applications due to its fast convergence. However, its theoretical analysis is still far from satisfactory. Existing convergence analyses for Adam rely on the bounded smoothness assumption, referred to as…

Machine Learning · Computer Science 2024-06-25 Bohan Wang , Yushun Zhang , Huishuai Zhang , Qi Meng , Ruoyu Sun , Zhi-Ming Ma , Tie-Yan Liu , Zhi-Quan Luo , Wei Chen

This paper aims to clearly distinguish between Stochastic Gradient Descent with Momentum (SGDM) and Adam in terms of their convergence rates. We demonstrate that Adam achieves a faster convergence compared to SGDM under the condition of…

Machine Learning · Computer Science 2024-03-25 Bohan Wang , Huishuai Zhang , Qi Meng , Ruoyu Sun , Zhi-Ming Ma , Wei Chen

Despite the popularity of the Adam optimizer in practice, most theoretical analyses study Stochastic Gradient Descent (SGD) as a proxy for Adam, and little is known about how the solutions found by Adam differ. In this paper, we show that…

Machine Learning · Computer Science 2025-11-05 Xinghan Li , Haodong Wen , Kaifeng Lyu

We introduce Adam, an algorithm for first-order gradient-based optimization of stochastic objective functions, based on adaptive estimates of lower-order moments. The method is straightforward to implement, is computationally efficient, has…

Machine Learning · Computer Science 2017-01-31 Diederik P. Kingma , Jimmy Ba

In recent years, signSGD has garnered interest as both a practical optimizer as well as a simple model to understand adaptive optimizers like Adam. Though there is a general consensus that signSGD acts to precondition optimization and…

Machine Learning · Statistics 2026-03-27 Ke Liang Xiao , Noah Marshall , Atish Agarwala , Elliot Paquette

The Adaptive Momentum Estimation (Adam) algorithm is highly effective in training various deep learning tasks. Despite this, there's limited theoretical understanding for Adam, especially when focusing on its vanilla form in non-convex…

Optimization and Control · Mathematics 2025-02-25 Yusu Hong , Junhong Lin

Adam is known to perform significantly better than Stochastic Gradient Descent (SGD) in language models, a phenomenon for which a number of explanations have been proposed. In this work, we revisit this "optimizer gap" through a series of…

Machine Learning · Computer Science 2025-06-17 Teodora Srećković , Jonas Geiping , Antonio Orvieto

The success of the Adam optimizer on a wide array of architectures has made it the default in settings where stochastic gradient descent (SGD) performs poorly. However, our theoretical understanding of this discrepancy is lagging,…

Machine Learning · Computer Science 2023-04-28 Frederik Kunstner , Jacques Chen , Jonathan Wilder Lavington , Mark Schmidt

Adam is a widely used optimization algorithm in deep learning, yet the specific class of objective functions where it exhibits inherent advantages remains underexplored. Unlike prior studies requiring external schedulers and $\beta_2$ near…

Machine Learning · Computer Science 2026-05-26 Zhiwei Bai , Jiajie Zhao , Zhangchen Zhou , Zhi-Qin John Xu , Yaoyu Zhang
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