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We study the optimal memorization capacity of modern Hopfield models and Kernelized Hopfield Models (KHMs), a transformer-compatible class of Dense Associative Memories. We present a tight analysis by establishing a connection between the…

Machine Learning · Statistics 2024-11-04 Jerry Yao-Chieh Hu , Dennis Wu , Han Liu

The Hopfield model provides a paradigmatic framework for associative memory. Its classical implementation, based on the Hebbian learning rule, suffers from catastrophic forgetting: when one attempts storing too many patterns, the network…

Disordered Systems and Neural Networks · Physics 2026-03-11 Enzo Marinari , Saverio Rossi , Francesco Zamponi

Recent studies point to the potential storage of a large number of patterns in the celebrated Hopfield associative memory model, well beyond the limits obtained previously. We investigate the properties of new fixed points to discover that…

Disordered Systems and Neural Networks · Physics 2017-11-22 Jacopo Rocchi , David Saad , Daniele Tantari

The Hopfield model is a paradigmatic model of neural networks that has been analyzed for many decades in the statistical physics, neuroscience, and machine learning communities. Inspired by the manifold hypothesis in machine learning, we…

Disordered Systems and Neural Networks · Physics 2023-05-01 Matteo Negri , Clarissa Lauditi , Gabriele Perugini , Carlo Lucibello , Enrico Malatesta

We analyze a variant of the Hopfield model that incorporates an unlearning mechanism based on spin correlations in the high-temperature regime. In the large system limit where extensively many patterns are stored, we employ the replica…

Disordered Systems and Neural Networks · Physics 2026-02-10 Shuta Takeuchi , Takashi Takahashi , Yoshiyuki Kabashima

The Hopfield network (HN) is a classical model of associative memory whose dynamics are closely related to the Ising spin system with 2-body interactions. Stored patterns are encoded as minima of an energy function shaped by a Hebbian…

Applied Physics · Physics 2025-09-23 Marco Cafiso , Paolo Paradisi

Associative memory, traditionally modeled by Hopfield networks, enables the retrieval of previously stored patterns from partial or noisy cues. Yet, the local computational principles which are required to enable this function remain…

Understanding the theoretical foundations of how memories are encoded and retrieved in neural populations is a central challenge in neuroscience. A popular theoretical scenario for modeling memory function is the attractor neural network…

Neurons and Cognition · Quantitative Biology 2016-02-17 Alireza Alemi , Carlo Baldassi , Nicolas Brunel , Riccardo Zecchina

We generalize the standard Hopfield model to the case when a weight is assigned to each input pattern. The weight can be interpreted as the frequency of the pattern occurrence at the input of the network. In the framework of the statistical…

Disordered Systems and Neural Networks · Physics 2012-05-07 Iakov Karandashev , Boris Kryzhanovsky , Leonid Litinskii

The Self-Optimization (SO) model can be considered as the third operational mode of the classical Hopfield Network, leveraging the power of associative memory to enhance optimization performance. Moreover, it has been argued to express…

Neural and Evolutionary Computing · Computer Science 2025-11-06 Natalya Weber , Christian Guckelsberger , Tom Froese

In this study we introduce a novel energy functional for long-sequence memory, building upon the framework of dense Hopfield networks which achieves exponential storage capacity through higher-order interactions. Building upon earlier work…

Machine Learning · Computer Science 2025-07-03 Ahmed Farooq

Associative memory retrieves complete patterns from partial or corrupted inputs and constitutes a primitive form of generative inference. Classical Hopfield networks (CHN) provide a canonical framework for associative memory but suffer from…

Modern Hopfield Networks (MHNs) have emerged as powerful components in deep learning, serving as effective replacements for pooling layers, LSTMs, and attention mechanisms. While recent advancements have significantly improved their storage…

Computational Complexity · Computer Science 2026-01-26 Yang Cao , Xiaoyu Li , Yuanpeng Li , Yingyu Liang , Zhenmei Shi , Zhao Song

Recent generalizations of the Hopfield model of associative memories are able to store a number $P$ of random patterns that grows exponentially with the number $N$ of neurons, $P=\exp(\alpha N)$. Besides the huge storage capacity, another…

Disordered Systems and Neural Networks · Physics 2024-02-14 Carlo Lucibello , Marc Mézard

We study a simple extended model of oscillator neural networks capable of storing sparsely coded phase patterns, in which information is encoded both in the mean firing rate and in the timing of spikes. Applying the methods of statistical…

Disordered Systems and Neural Networks · Physics 2009-10-31 Masaki Nomura , Toshio Aoyagi

Hopfield models, originally developed to study memory retrieval in neural networks, have become versatile tools for modeling diverse biological systems in which function emerges from collective dynamics. In this review, we provide a…

Biological Physics · Physics 2025-06-17 Maria Yampolskaya , Pankaj Mehta

Dense Associative Memories or Modern Hopfield Networks have many appealing properties of associative memory. They can do pattern completion, store a large number of memories, and can be described using a recurrent neural network with a…

Neural and Evolutionary Computing · Computer Science 2021-07-29 Dmitry Krotov

Quantum computing allows for the potential of significant advancements in both the speed and the capacity of widely used machine learning techniques. Here we employ quantum algorithms for the Hopfield network, which can be used for pattern…

Quantum Physics · Physics 2018-10-10 Patrick Rebentrost , Thomas R. Bromley , Christian Weedbrook , Seth Lloyd

This paper is concerned with the modeling and analysis of two of the most commonly used recurrent neural network models (i.e., Hopfield neural network and firing-rate neural network) with dynamic recurrent connections undergoing Hebbian…

Optimization and Control · Mathematics 2024-03-25 Veronica Centorrino , Francesco Bullo , Giovanni Russo

We examine a previouly introduced attractor neural network model that explains the persistent activities of neurons in the anterior ventral temporal cortex of the brain. In this model, the coexistence of several attractors including…

Disordered Systems and Neural Networks · Physics 2009-11-10 T. Uezu , A. Hirano , M. Okada