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With the ongoing rise of machine learning, the need for methods for explaining decisions made by artificial intelligence systems is becoming a more and more important topic. Especially for image classification tasks, many state-of-the-art…

Machine Learning · Computer Science 2022-05-10 Silvan Mertes , Tobias Huber , Katharina Weitz , Alexander Heimerl , Elisabeth André

When an image classifier makes a prediction, which parts of the image are relevant and why? We can rephrase this question to ask: which parts of the image, if they were not seen by the classifier, would most change its decision? Producing…

Computer Vision and Pattern Recognition · Computer Science 2019-02-27 Chun-Hao Chang , Elliot Creager , Anna Goldenberg , David Duvenaud

There is a growing concern that the recent progress made in AI, especially regarding the predictive competence of deep learning models, will be undermined by a failure to properly explain their operation and outputs. In response to this…

Machine Learning · Computer Science 2020-09-15 Eoin M. Kenny , Mark T. Keane

The growing integration of machine learning (ML) and artificial intelligence (AI) models into high-stakes domains such as healthcare and scientific research calls for models that are not only accurate but also interpretable. Among the…

Machine Learning · Computer Science 2025-10-23 Zhuo Cao , Xuan Zhao , Lena Krieger , Hanno Scharr , Ira Assent

The adoption of increasingly complex deep models has fueled an urgent need for insight into how these models make predictions. Counterfactual explanations form a powerful tool for providing actionable explanations to practitioners.…

Machine Learning · Computer Science 2024-11-05 Paraskevas Pegios , Aasa Feragen , Andreas Abildtrup Hansen , Georgios Arvanitidis

Plausible counterfactual explanations (p-CFEs) are perturbations that minimally modify inputs to change classifier decisions while remaining plausible under the data distribution. In this study, we demonstrate that classifiers can be…

Machine Learning · Computer Science 2025-11-14 Shpresim Sadiku , Kartikeya Chitranshi , Hiroshi Kera , Sebastian Pokutta

Counterfactuals have been established as a popular explainability technique which leverages a set of minimal edits to alter the prediction of a classifier. When considering conceptual counterfactuals on images, the edits requested should…

Machine Learning · Computer Science 2024-05-06 Angeliki Dimitriou , Nikolaos Chaidos , Maria Lymperaiou , Giorgos Stamou

Counterfactual explanations have been argued to be one of the most intuitive forms of explanation. They are typically defined as a minimal set of edits on a given data sample that, when applied, changes the output of a model on that sample.…

Artificial Intelligence · Computer Science 2023-05-30 Edmund Dervakos , Konstantinos Thomas , Giorgos Filandrianos , Giorgos Stamou

Counterfactual explanations have been a popular method of post-hoc explainability for a variety of settings in Machine Learning. Such methods focus on explaining classifiers by generating new data points that are similar to a given…

Machine Learning · Computer Science 2024-10-21 Joshua Nathaniel Williams , Anurag Katakkar , Hoda Heidari , J. Zico Kolter

Counterfactual instances are a powerful tool to obtain valuable insights into automated decision processes, describing the necessary minimal changes in the input space to alter the prediction towards a desired target. Most previous…

Machine Learning · Computer Science 2021-06-07 Robert-Florian Samoilescu , Arnaud Van Looveren , Janis Klaise

Towards better explainability in the field of information retrieval, we present CREDENCE, an interactive tool capable of generating counterfactual explanations for document rankers. Embracing the unique properties of the ranking problem, we…

Information Retrieval · Computer Science 2023-08-29 Joel Rorseth , Parke Godfrey , Lukasz Golab , Mehdi Kargar , Divesh Srivastava , Jaroslaw Szlichta

Explainable recommendation through counterfactual reasoning seeks to identify the influential aspects of items in recommendations, which can then be used as explanations. However, state-of-the-art approaches, which aim to minimize changes…

Information Retrieval · Computer Science 2025-10-14 Yi Yu , Zhenxing Hu

We can consider Counterfactuals as belonging in the domain of Discourse structure and semantics, A core area in Natural Language Understanding and in this paper, we introduce an approach to resolving counterfactual detection as well as the…

Computation and Language · Computer Science 2020-05-28 Kelechi Nwaike , Licheng Jiao

Counterfactual explanations are viewed as an effective way to explain machine learning predictions. This interest is reflected by a relatively young literature with already dozens of algorithms aiming to generate such explanations. These…

Machine Learning · Computer Science 2022-12-05 Raphael Mazzine , David Martens

Machine learning models that operate on graph-structured data, such as molecular graphs or social networks, often make accurate predictions but offer little insight into why certain predictions are made. Counterfactual explanations address…

Machine Learning · Computer Science 2025-11-21 David Bechtoldt , Sidney Bender

Counterfactual reasoning -- envisioning hypothetical scenarios, or possible worlds, where some circumstances are different from what (f)actually occurred (counter-to-fact) -- is ubiquitous in human cognition. Conventionally,…

Artificial Intelligence · Computer Science 2023-05-31 Julius von Kügelgen , Abdirisak Mohamed , Sander Beckers

Machine learning can impact people with legal or ethical consequences when it is used to automate decisions in areas such as insurance, lending, hiring, and predictive policing. In many of these scenarios, previous decisions have been made…

Machine Learning · Statistics 2018-03-09 Matt J. Kusner , Joshua R. Loftus , Chris Russell , Ricardo Silva

We introduce a formalism for the evaluation of counterfactual queries in the framework of quantum causal models, generalising Pearl's semantics for counterfactuals in classical causal models, thus completing the last rung in the quantum…

Quantum Physics · Physics 2024-09-18 Ardra Kooderi Suresh , Markus Frembs , Eric G. Cavalcanti

Work in Counterfactual Explanations tends to focus on the principle of "the closest possible world" that identifies small changes leading to the desired outcome. In this paper we argue that while this approach might initially seem…

Machine Learning · Computer Science 2020-02-25 Rafael Poyiadzi , Kacper Sokol , Raul Santos-Rodriguez , Tijl De Bie , Peter Flach

Model explanations based on pure observational data cannot compute the effects of features reliably, due to their inability to estimate how each factor alteration could affect the rest. We argue that explanations should be based on the…

Machine Learning · Statistics 2019-09-20 Álvaro Parafita , Jordi Vitrià