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Test-Time Adaptation (TTA) enhances model robustness to out-of-distribution (OOD) data by updating the model online during inference, yet existing methods lack theoretical insights into the fundamental causes of performance degradation…

Computer Vision and Pattern Recognition · Computer Science 2026-04-07 Xiao Chen , Zhongjing Du , Jiazhen Huang , Xu Jiang , Li Lu , Jingyan Jiang , Zhi Wang

Continual Test-Time Adaptation (CTTA) seeks to adapt source pre-trained models to continually changing, unseen target domains. While existing CTTA methods assume structured domain changes with uniform durations, real-world environments…

Machine Learning · Computer Science 2025-06-09 Yunbei Zhang , Akshay Mehra , Shuaicheng Niu , Jihun Hamm

Adversarial training in reinforcement learning (RL) is challenging because perturbations cascade through trajectories and compound over time, making fixed-strength attacks either overly destructive or too conservative. We propose…

Machine Learning · Computer Science 2026-01-30 Lucas Schott , Elies Gherbi , Hatem Hajri , Sylvain Lamprier

We study the corruption-robustness of in-context reinforcement learning (ICRL), focusing on the Decision-Pretrained Transformer (DPT, Lee et al., 2023). To address the challenge of reward poisoning attacks targeting the DPT, we propose a…

Machine Learning · Computer Science 2025-09-30 Paulius Sasnauskas , Yiğit Yalın , Goran Radanović

The theory of continuous-time reinforcement learning (RL) has progressed rapidly in recent years. While the ultimate objective of RL is typically to learn deterministic control policies, most existing continuous-time RL methods rely on…

Machine Learning · Computer Science 2026-03-17 Ziheng Cheng , Xin Guo , Yufei Zhang

Real-world application models are commonly deployed in dynamic environments, where the target domain distribution undergoes temporal changes. Continual Test-Time Adaptation (CTTA) has recently emerged as a promising technique to gradually…

Computer Vision and Pattern Recognition · Computer Science 2025-06-12 Shilei Cao , Juepeng Zheng , Yan Liu , Baoquan Zhao , Ziqi Yuan , Weijia Li , Runmin Dong , Haohuan Fu

Test-time adaptation is a promising research direction that allows the source model to adapt itself to changes in data distribution without any supervision. Yet, current methods are usually evaluated on benchmarks that are only a…

Computer Vision and Pattern Recognition · Computer Science 2024-10-15 Damian Sójka , Sebastian Cygert , Bartłomiej Twardowski , Tomasz Trzciński

Test-Time Training (TTT) is an emerging paradigm that enables models to adapt their parameters during inference, improving performance on tasks such as few-shot learning, retrieval-augmented generation, and complex reasoning. However, this…

Machine Learning · Computer Science 2026-05-25 Simone Antonelli , Sadegh Akhondzadeh , Aleksandar Bojchevski

Safe reinforcement learning (RL) trains a constraint satisfaction policy by interacting with the environment. We aim to tackle a more challenging problem: learning a safe policy from an offline dataset. We study the offline safe RL problem…

Machine Learning · Computer Science 2023-06-22 Zuxin Liu , Zijian Guo , Yihang Yao , Zhepeng Cen , Wenhao Yu , Tingnan Zhang , Ding Zhao

Deep learning models have demonstrated exceptional performance across a wide range of computer vision tasks. However, their performance often degrades significantly when faced with distribution shifts, such as domain or dataset changes.…

Computer Vision and Pattern Recognition · Computer Science 2025-07-09 Samuel Barbeau , Pedram Fekri , David Osowiechi , Ali Bahri , Moslem Yazdanpanah , Masih Aminbeidokhti , Christian Desrosiers

Continual Test-Time Adaptation (CTTA) involves adapting a pre-trained source model to continually changing unsupervised target domains. In this paper, we systematically analyze the challenges of this task: online environment, unsupervised…

Computer Vision and Pattern Recognition · Computer Science 2024-07-19 Zhilin Zhu , Xiaopeng Hong , Zhiheng Ma , Weijun Zhuang , Yaohui Ma , Yong Dai , Yaowei Wang

Recent studies have shown that cooperative multi-agent deep reinforcement learning (c-MADRL) is under the threat of backdoor attacks. Once a backdoor trigger is observed, it will perform abnormal actions leading to failures or malicious…

Artificial Intelligence · Computer Science 2024-09-13 Yinbo Yu , Saihao Yan , Jiajia Liu

As cyber threats grow increasingly sophisticated, reinforcement learning (RL) is emerging as a promising technique to create intelligent and adaptive cyber defense systems. However, most existing autonomous defensive agents have overlooked…

Machine Learning · Computer Science 2025-04-17 Ilya Orson Sandoval , Isaac Symes Thompson , Vasilios Mavroudis , Chris Hicks

Test-time adaptation (TTA) aims to adapt models to maintain reliable performance on non-stationary test streams without requiring labeled data. Despite its empirical success, the learnability of TTA under non-stationary streams remains…

Machine Learning · Computer Science 2026-05-28 Zhi Zhou , Ming Yang , Shi-Yu Tian , Kun-Yang Yu , Lan-Zhe Guo , Yu-Feng Li

Evaluating deep reinforcement learning (DRL) agents against targeted behavior attacks is critical for assessing their robustness. These attacks aim to manipulate the victim into specific behaviors that align with the attacker's objectives,…

Machine Learning · Computer Science 2024-12-17 Fengshuo Bai , Runze Liu , Yali Du , Ying Wen , Yaodong Yang

Text understanding often suffers from domain shifts. To handle testing domains, domain adaptation (DA) is trained to adapt to a fixed and observed testing domain; a more challenging paradigm, test-time adaptation (TTA), cannot access the…

Computation and Language · Computer Science 2026-01-05 Tianlun Liu , Zhiliang Tian , Zhen Huang , Xingzhi Zhou , Wanlong Yu , Tianle Liu , Feng Liu , Dongsheng Li

Continual test-time adaptation (CTTA) has recently emerged to adapt a pre-trained source model to continuously evolving target distributions, which accommodates the dynamic nature of real-world environments. To mitigate the risk of…

Machine Learning · Computer Science 2024-12-13 Chaoran Cui , Yongrui Zhen , Shuai Gong , Chunyun Zhang , Hui Liu , Yilong Yin

Test-time adaptation (TTA) has emerged as a promising solution to tackle the continual domain shift in machine learning by allowing model parameters to change at test time, via self-supervised learning on unlabeled testing data. At the same…

Machine Learning · Computer Science 2024-12-03 Trung-Hieu Hoang , Duc Minh Vo , Minh N. Do

Continual Test-Time Adaptation (CTTA) aims to adapt the source model to continually changing unlabeled target domains without access to the source data. Existing methods mainly focus on model-based adaptation in a self-training manner, such…

Computer Vision and Pattern Recognition · Computer Science 2023-02-14 Yulu Gan , Yan Bai , Yihang Lou , Xianzheng Ma , Renrui Zhang , Nian Shi , Lin Luo

Continual Test-Time Adaptation (CTTA) is an emerging and challenging task where a model trained in a source domain must adapt to continuously changing conditions during testing, without access to the original source data. CTTA is prone to…

Machine Learning · Computer Science 2024-05-29 Ziqi Shi , Fan Lyu , Ye Liu , Fanhua Shang , Fuyuan Hu , Wei Feng , Zhang Zhang , Liang Wang