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We investigate the statistical properties of Temporal Difference (TD) learning with Polyak-Ruppert averaging, arguably one of the most widely used algorithms in reinforcement learning, for the task of estimating the parameters of the…

Machine Learning · Statistics 2026-02-25 Weichen Wu , Gen Li , Yuting Wei , Alessandro Rinaldo

In this article, we aim to provide a literature review of different formulations and approaches to continual reinforcement learning (RL), also known as lifelong or non-stationary RL. We begin by discussing our perspective on why RL is a…

Machine Learning · Computer Science 2022-11-15 Khimya Khetarpal , Matthew Riemer , Irina Rish , Doina Precup

Continuously learning new tasks using high-level ideas or knowledge is a key capability of humans. In this paper, we propose Lifelong reinforcement learning with Sequential linear temporal logic formulas and Reward Machines (LSRM), which…

Artificial Intelligence · Computer Science 2021-11-19 Xuejing Zheng , Chao Yu , Chen Chen , Jianye Hao , Hankz Hankui Zhuo

Value function is the central notion of Reinforcement Learning (RL). Value estimation, especially with function approximation, can be challenging since it involves the stochasticity of environmental dynamics and reward signals that can be…

Machine Learning · Computer Science 2021-03-04 Hongyao Tang , Jianye Hao , Guangyong Chen , Pengfei Chen , Chen Chen , Yaodong Yang , Luo Zhang , Wulong Liu , Zhaopeng Meng

Reinforcement Learning (RL) has achieved significant success in solving single-goal tasks. However, uniform goal selection often results in sample inefficiency in multi-goal settings where agents must learn a universal goal-conditioned…

Machine Learning · Computer Science 2025-12-30 Gaurav Chaudhary , Laxmidhar Behera

A default assumption in reinforcement learning (RL) and optimal control is that observations arrive at discrete time points on a fixed clock cycle. Yet, many applications involve continuous-time systems where the time discretization, in…

Machine Learning · Computer Science 2024-01-17 Zichen Zhang , Johannes Kirschner , Junxi Zhang , Francesco Zanini , Alex Ayoub , Masood Dehghan , Dale Schuurmans

Machine Learning models in real-world applications must continuously learn new tasks to adapt to shifts in the data-generating distribution. Yet, for Continual Learning (CL), models often struggle to balance learning new tasks (plasticity)…

Machine Learning · Computer Science 2025-10-24 Luckeciano C. Melo , Alessandro Abate , Yarin Gal

The value function plays a crucial role as a measure for the cumulative future reward an agent receives in both reinforcement learning and optimal control. It is therefore of interest to study how similar the values of neighboring states…

Systems and Control · Electrical Eng. & Systems 2024-03-22 Hans Harder , Sebastian Peitz

Temporal-difference (TD) learning is highly effective at controlling and evaluating an agent's long-term outcomes. Most approaches in this paradigm implement a semi-gradient update to boost the learning speed, which consists of ignoring the…

Machine Learning · Computer Science 2026-05-15 Théo Vincent , Kevin Gerhardt , Yogesh Tripathi , Habib Maraqten , Adam White , Martha White , Jan Peters , Carlo D'Eramo

Temporal difference (TD) learning is one of the main foundations of modern reinforcement learning. This paper studies the use of TD(0), a canonical TD algorithm, to estimate the value function of a given policy from a batch of data. In this…

Machine Learning · Computer Science 2020-08-18 Brahma Pavse , Ishan Durugkar , Josiah Hanna , Peter Stone

The goal of this paper is to study a distributed version of the gradient temporal-difference (GTD) learning algorithm for a class of multi-agent Markov decision processes (MDPs). The temporal-difference (TD) learning is a reinforcement…

Optimization and Control · Mathematics 2020-04-29 Donghwan Lee , Jianghai Hu

Reinforcement learning (RL) is a powerful machine learning technique that enables an intelligent agent to learn an optimal policy that maximizes the cumulative rewards in sequential decision making. Most of methods in the existing…

Machine Learning · Statistics 2023-01-06 Chengchun Shi , Zhengling Qi , Jianing Wang , Fan Zhou

Model-free reinforcement learning (RL) is a powerful, general tool for learning complex behaviors. However, its sample efficiency is often impractically large for solving challenging real-world problems, even with off-policy algorithms such…

Machine Learning · Computer Science 2020-02-25 Vitchyr Pong , Shixiang Gu , Murtaza Dalal , Sergey Levine

Robot control using reinforcement learning has become popular, but its learning process generally terminates halfway through an episode for safety and time-saving reasons. This study addresses the problem of the most popular exception…

Robotics · Computer Science 2026-02-25 Taisuke Kobayashi

Temporal-Difference (TD) learning is a standard and very successful reinforcement learning approach, at the core of both algorithms that learn the value of a given policy, as well as algorithms which learn how to improve policies.…

Machine Learning · Computer Science 2020-06-17 Mingde Zhao

Long-horizon tasks, which have a large discount factor, pose a challenge for most conventional reinforcement learning (RL) algorithms. Algorithms such as Value Iteration and Temporal Difference (TD) learning have a slow convergence rate and…

Machine Learning · Computer Science 2024-09-04 Mark Bedaywi , Amin Rakhsha , Amir-massoud Farahmand

Reinforcement learning has been successful across several applications in which agents have to learn to act in environments with sparse feedback. However, despite this empirical success there is still a lack of theoretical understanding of…

Machine Learning · Statistics 2023-11-08 Blake Bordelon , Paul Masset , Henry Kuo , Cengiz Pehlevan

In most of the transfer learning approaches to reinforcement learning (RL) the distribution over the tasks is assumed to be stationary. Therefore, the target and source tasks are i.i.d. samples of the same distribution. In the context of…

Machine Learning · Computer Science 2020-06-19 Giuseppe Canonaco , Andrea Soprani , Manuel Roveri , Marcello Restelli

Q-Learning is a fundamental off-policy reinforcement learning (RL) algorithm that has the objective of approximating action-value functions in order to learn optimal policies. Nonetheless, it has difficulties in reconciling bias with…

Machine Learning · Computer Science 2024-11-22 Mahammad Humayoo

The average reward is a fundamental performance metric in reinforcement learning (RL) focusing on the long-run performance of an agent. Differential temporal difference (TD) learning algorithms are a major advance for average reward RL as…

Machine Learning · Computer Science 2026-02-19 Ethan Blaser , Jiuqi Wang , Shangtong Zhang