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Counterfactual explanations (CE) are the de facto method for providing insights into black-box decision-making models by identifying alternative inputs that lead to different outcomes. However, existing CE approaches, including group and…

Artificial Intelligence · Computer Science 2025-03-13 Lei You , Lele Cao , Mattias Nilsson , Bo Zhao , Lei Lei

Work in Counterfactual Explanations tends to focus on the principle of "the closest possible world" that identifies small changes leading to the desired outcome. In this paper we argue that while this approach might initially seem…

Machine Learning · Computer Science 2020-02-25 Rafael Poyiadzi , Kacper Sokol , Raul Santos-Rodriguez , Tijl De Bie , Peter Flach

The growing complexity of AI systems has intensified the need for transparency through Explainable AI (XAI). Counterfactual explanations (CFs) offer actionable "what-if" scenarios on three levels: Local CFs providing instance-specific…

Machine Learning · Computer Science 2026-05-12 Oleksii Furman , Patryk Wielopolski , Łukasz Lenkiewicz , Jerzy Stefanowski , Maciej Zięba

Counterfactual explanation is a form of interpretable machine learning that generates perturbations on a sample to achieve the desired outcome. The generated samples can act as instructions to guide end users on how to observe the desired…

Machine Learning · Computer Science 2023-03-28 Tri Dung Duong , Qian Li , Guandong Xu

Currently, machine learning is widely used across various domains, including time series data analysis. However, some machine learning models function as black boxes, making interpretability a critical concern. One approach to address this…

Machine Learning · Computer Science 2025-12-01 Keita Kinjo

This research is focused on generating achievable counterfactual explanations. Given a negative outcome computed by a machine learning model or a decision system, the novel CoGS approach generates (i) a counterfactual solution that…

Artificial Intelligence · Computer Science 2025-02-14 Sopam Dasgupta

Counterfactual explanations elucidate algorithmic decisions by pointing to scenarios that would have led to an alternative, desired outcome. Giving insight into the model's behavior, they hint users towards possible actions and give grounds…

Machine Learning · Statistics 2024-04-05 Susanne Dandl , Kristin Blesch , Timo Freiesleben , Gunnar König , Jan Kapar , Bernd Bischl , Marvin Wright

Counterfactual instances are a powerful tool to obtain valuable insights into automated decision processes, describing the necessary minimal changes in the input space to alter the prediction towards a desired target. Most previous…

Machine Learning · Computer Science 2021-06-07 Robert-Florian Samoilescu , Arnaud Van Looveren , Janis Klaise

Graph Neural Networks (GNNs) have been a powerful tool for node classification tasks in complex networks. However, their decision-making processes remain a black-box to users, making it challenging to understand the reasoning behind their…

Machine Learning · Computer Science 2024-02-12 Chirag Chhablani , Sarthak Jain , Akshay Channesh , Ian A. Kash , Sourav Medya

Counterfactual explanation (CE) is a widely used post-hoc method that provides individuals with actionable changes to alter an unfavorable prediction from a machine learning model. Plausible CE methods improve realism by considering data…

Machine Learning · Computer Science 2025-09-25 Trung Nguyen Thanh , Huyen Giang Thi Thu , Tai Le Quy , Ha-Bang Ban

Counterfactual explanations have shown promising results as a post-hoc framework to make image classifiers more explainable. In this paper, we propose DiME, a method allowing the generation of counterfactual images using the recent…

Computer Vision and Pattern Recognition · Computer Science 2022-03-30 Guillaume Jeanneret , Loïc Simon , Frédéric Jurie

Counterfactuals can explain classification decisions of neural networks in a human interpretable way. We propose a simple but effective method to generate such counterfactuals. More specifically, we perform a suitable diffeomorphic…

Machine Learning · Computer Science 2022-06-17 Ann-Kathrin Dombrowski , Jan E. Gerken , Klaus-Robert Müller , Pan Kessel

Counterfactual explanations (CFE) for deep image classifiers aim to reveal how minimal input changes lead to different model decisions, providing critical insights for model interpretation and improvement. However, existing CFE methods…

Computer Vision and Pattern Recognition · Computer Science 2025-09-23 Townim Faisal Chowdhury , Vu Minh Hieu Phan , Kewen Liao , Nanyu Dong , Minh-Son To , Anton Hengel , Johan Verjans , Zhibin Liao

The concept of counterfactual explanations (CE) has emerged as one of the important concepts to understand the inner workings of complex AI systems. In this paper, we translate the idea of CEs to linear optimization and propose, motivate,…

Optimization and Control · Mathematics 2024-05-27 Jannis Kurtz , Ş. İlker Birbil , Dick den Hertog

Visual counterfactual explainers (VCEs) are a straightforward and promising approach to enhancing the transparency of image classifiers. VCEs complement other types of explanations, such as feature attribution, by revealing the specific…

Machine Learning · Computer Science 2026-01-13 Sidney Bender , Jan Herrmann , Klaus-Robert Müller , Grégoire Montavon

Counterfactual explanations is one of the post-hoc methods used to provide explainability to machine learning models that have been attracting attention in recent years. Most examples in the literature, address the problem of generating…

Machine Learning · Computer Science 2021-05-11 Guillermo Navas-Palencia

There is a growing concern that the recent progress made in AI, especially regarding the predictive competence of deep learning models, will be undermined by a failure to properly explain their operation and outputs. In response to this…

Machine Learning · Computer Science 2020-09-15 Eoin M. Kenny , Mark T. Keane

Model interpretability has become an important problem in machine learning (ML) due to the increased effect that algorithmic decisions have on humans. Counterfactual explanations can help users understand not only why ML models make certain…

Machine Learning · Computer Science 2021-12-20 Ana Lucic , Harrie Oosterhuis , Hinda Haned , Maarten de Rijke

Machine learning models are increasingly used in areas such as loan approvals and hiring, yet they often function as black boxes, obscuring their decision-making processes. Transparency is crucial, and individuals need explanations to…

Artificial Intelligence · Computer Science 2024-07-12 Sopam Dasgupta , Joaquín Arias , Elmer Salazar , Gopal Gupta

The need to explain decisions made by AI systems is driven by both recent regulation and user demand. The decisions are often explainable only post hoc. In counterfactual explanations, one may ask what constitutes the best counterfactual…

Artificial Intelligence · Computer Science 2025-06-12 Jiri Nemecek , Tomas Pevny , Jakub Marecek