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We introduce the theoretical foundations of the Tangle 2.0, a probabilistic leaderless consensus protocol based on a directed acyclic graph (DAG) called the Tangle. The Tangle naturally succeeds the blockchain as its next evolutionary step…

Distributed, Parallel, and Cluster Computing · Computer Science 2022-10-13 Sebastian Müller , Andreas Penzkofer , Nikita Polyanskii , Jonas Theis , William Sanders , Hans Moog

In the past decade, blockchain has emerged as a promising solution for building secure distributed ledgers and has attracted significant attention. However, current blockchain systems suffer from limited throughput, poor scalability, and…

Distributed, Parallel, and Cluster Computing · Computer Science 2025-08-07 Tayyaba Noreen , Qiufen Xia , Muhammad Zeeshan Haider

Users of blockchains value scalability, expecting fast confirmations and immediate transaction processing. Odontoceti, the latest in DAG-based consensus, addresses these concerns by prioritizing low latency and high throughput, making a…

Distributed, Parallel, and Cluster Computing · Computer Science 2025-10-30 Preston Vander Vos

Blockchain plays an important role in cryptocurrency markets and technology services. However, limitations on high latency and low scalability retard their adoptions and applications in classic designs. Reconstructed blockchain systems have…

Cryptography and Security · Computer Science 2022-11-01 Qin Wang , Jiangshan Yu , Shiping Chen , Yang Xiang

Trustless systems, such as those blockchain enpowered, provide trust in the system regardless of the trust of its participants, who may be honest or malicious. Proof-of-stake (PoS) protocols and DAG-based approaches have emerged as a better…

Distributed, Parallel, and Cluster Computing · Computer Science 2019-07-09 Quan Nguyen , Andre Cronje , Michael Kong , Alex Kampa , George Samman

Blockchains use consensus protocols to reach agreement, e.g., on the ordering of transactions. DAG-based consensus protocols are increasingly adopted by blockchain companies to reduce energy consumption and enhance security. These protocols…

Logic in Computer Science · Computer Science 2025-03-19 Nathalie Bertrand , Pranav Ghorpade , Sasha Rubin , Bernhard Scholz , Pavle Subotic

DAG-Rider popularized a new paradigm of DAG-BFT protocols, separating dissemination from consensus: all nodes disseminate transactions as blocks that reference previously known blocks, while consensus is reached by electing certain blocks…

Distributed, Parallel, and Cluster Computing · Computer Science 2026-05-08 Michael Yiqing Hu , Alvin Hong Yao Yan , Yang Yihan , Liu Xiang , Li Jialin

We present parallel proof-of-work with DAG-style voting, a novel proof-of-work cryptocurrency protocol that, compared to Bitcoin, provides better consistency guarantees, higher transaction throughput, lower transaction confirmation latency,…

Cryptography and Security · Computer Science 2023-12-07 Patrik Keller

With the rise of cryptocurrencies, many new applications built on decentralized blockchains have emerged. Blockchains are full-stack distributed systems where multiple sub-systems interact. While many deployed blockchains and decentralized…

Cryptography and Security · Computer Science 2025-12-16 Ivan Homoliak

This paper introduces a new consensus protocol, so-called \emph{\stair}, for fast consensus in DAG-based trustless system. In \stair, we propose a new approach to creating local block DAG, namely \emph{x-DAG} (cross-DAG), on each node.…

Cryptography and Security · Computer Science 2019-09-05 Quan Nguyen , Andre Cronje , Michael Kong , Alex Kampa , George Samman

The connected and autonomous systems (CAS) and auto-driving era is coming into our life. To support CAS applications such as AI-driven decision-making and blockchain-based smart data management platform, data and message…

Networking and Internet Architecture · Computer Science 2023-11-14 Huanyu Wu , Chentao Yue , Lei Zhang , Yonghui Li , Muhammad Ali Imran

DAG-based DLTs allow for parallel, asynchronous writing access to a ledger. Consequently, the perception of the most recent blocks may differ considerably between nodes, and the underlying network properties of the P2P layer have a direct…

Distributed, Parallel, and Cluster Computing · Computer Science 2023-05-08 Bing-Yang Lin , Daria Dziubałtowska , Piotr Macek , Andreas Penzkofer , Sebastian Müller

In response to the bottleneck of processing throughput inherent to single chain PoW blockchains, several proposals have substituted a single chain for Directed Acyclic Graphs (DAGs). In this work, we investigate two notable DAG-oriented…

Cryptography and Security · Computer Science 2021-09-03 Martin Perešíni , Federico Matteo Benčić , Kamil Malinka , Ivan Homoliak

Blockchain is maintained as a global log between a network of nodes and uses cryptographic distributed protocols to synchronize the updates. As adopted by Bitcoin and Ethereum these update operations to the ledger are serialized, and…

Cryptography and Security · Computer Science 2019-10-25 Himanshu Gupta , Dharanipragada Janakiram

Layer 2 systems have received increasing attention due to their potential to scale the throughput of L1 blockchains. To avoid the cost of putting data on chain, these systems increasingly turn to off-chain data availability solutions such…

Cryptography and Security · Computer Science 2023-06-21 Ertem Nusret Tas , Dan Boneh

Bitcoin is a decentralised digital currency that serves as an alternative to existing transaction systems based on an external central authority for security. Although Bitcoin has many desirable properties, one of its fundamental…

Cryptography and Security · Computer Science 2019-10-07 Georgios Birmpas , Elias Koutsoupias , Philip Lazos , Francisco J. Marmolejo-Cossío

We present Bullshark, the first directed acyclic graph (DAG) based asynchronous Byzantine Atomic Broadcast protocol that is optimized for the common synchronous case. Like previous DAG-based BFT protocols, Bullshark requires no extra…

Cryptography and Security · Computer Science 2022-09-08 Alexander Spiegelman , Neil Giridharan , Alberto Sonnino , Lefteris Kokoris-Kogias

Several blockchain consensus protocols proposed to use of Directed Acyclic Graphs (DAGs) to solve the limited processing throughput of traditional single-chain Proof-of-Work (PoW) blockchains. Many such protocols utilize a random…

Cryptography and Security · Computer Science 2023-05-29 Martin Perešíni , Ivan Homoliak , Federico Matteo Benčić , Martin Hrubý , Kamil Malinka

Modern embedded systems have made the transition from single-core to multi-core architectures, providing performance improvement via parallelism rather than higher clock frequencies. DAGs are considered among the most generic task models in…

Distributed, Parallel, and Cluster Computing · Computer Science 2014-06-05 José Marinho , Stefan M. Petters

The scheduling and schedulability analysis of real-time directed acyclic graph (DAG) task systems have received much recent attention. The DAG model can accurately represent intra-task parallelim and precedence constraints existing in many…

Operating Systems · Computer Science 2018-08-02 Zheng Dong , Cong Liu