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This paper presents a survey and taxonomy of LLM fingerprinting and watermarking for identity, ownership verification, provenance, and generated-content attribution. Large language models (LLMs) require substantial investments in data,…

Cryptography and Security · Computer Science 2026-05-29 Bing Liu , Shunping Wang , Yufan Zhu , Xinyi Yu , Jing Huang , Linkang Du , Hongbin Pei , Wei Luo

We investigate the radioactivity of text generated by large language models (LLM), i.e. whether it is possible to detect that such synthetic input was used to train a subsequent LLM. Current methods like membership inference or active IP…

Cryptography and Security · Computer Science 2024-10-29 Tom Sander , Pierre Fernandez , Alain Durmus , Matthijs Douze , Teddy Furon

Amidst rising concerns about the internet being proliferated with content generated from language models (LMs), watermarking is seen as a principled way to certify whether text was generated from a model. Many recent watermarking techniques…

Cryptography and Security · Computer Science 2024-11-11 Saksham Rastogi , Danish Pruthi

Generation-time text watermarking embeds statistical signals into text for traceability of AI-generated content. We explore *post-hoc watermarking* where an LLM rewrites existing text while applying generation-time watermarking, to protect…

We study how to watermark LLM outputs, i.e. embedding algorithmically detectable signals into LLM-generated text to track misuse. Unlike the current mainstream methods that work with a fixed LLM, we expand the watermark design space by…

Machine Learning · Computer Science 2024-03-19 Xiaojun Xu , Yuanshun Yao , Yang Liu

Given how large parts of publicly available text are crawled to pretrain large language models (LLMs), data creators increasingly worry about the inclusion of their proprietary data for model training without attribution or licensing. Their…

Machine Learning · Computer Science 2025-06-10 Saksham Rastogi , Pratyush Maini , Danish Pruthi

With the increasing use of large-language models (LLMs) like ChatGPT, watermarking has emerged as a promising approach for tracing machine-generated content. However, research on LLM watermarking often relies on simple perplexity or…

Computation and Language · Computer Science 2023-12-06 Karanpartap Singh , James Zou

Generative images have proliferated on Web platforms in social media and online copyright distribution scenarios, and semantic watermarking has increasingly been integrated into diffusion models to support reliable provenance tracking and…

Machine Learning · Computer Science 2026-02-26 Zheng Gao , Xiaoyu Li , Zhicheng Bao , Xiaoyan Feng , Jiaojiao Jiang

Watermarking generative-AI systems, such as LLMs, has gained considerable interest, driven by their enhanced capabilities across a wide range of tasks. Although current approaches have demonstrated that small, context-dependent shifts in…

Computation and Language · Computer Science 2024-03-29 Piotr Molenda , Adian Liusie , Mark J. F. Gales

Watermarking is a technical means to dissuade malfeasant usage of Large Language Models. This paper proposes a novel watermarking scheme, so-called WaterMax, that enjoys high detectability while sustaining the quality of the generated text…

Cryptography and Security · Computer Science 2024-10-21 Eva Giboulot , Teddy Furon

As LLMs become commonplace, machine-generated text has the potential to flood the internet with spam, social media bots, and valueless content. Watermarking is a simple and effective strategy for mitigating such harms by enabling the…

As large language models (LLMs) become integral to applications such as question answering and content creation, reliable content attribution has become increasingly important. Watermarking is a promising approach, but most existing methods…

Cryptography and Security · Computer Science 2026-05-11 Ya Jiang , Massieh Kordi Boroujeny , Surender Suresh Kumar , Kai Zeng

To mitigate the potential misuse of large language models (LLMs), recent research has developed watermarking algorithms, which restrict the generation process to leave an invisible trace for watermark detection. Due to the two-stage nature…

Computation and Language · Computer Science 2024-07-02 Shangqing Tu , Yuliang Sun , Yushi Bai , Jifan Yu , Lei Hou , Juanzi Li

The proliferation of open-source code and large language models (LLMs) for code generation has amplified the risks of unauthorized reuse and intellectual property infringement. Source code watermarking offers a potential solution, yet…

Cryptography and Security · Computer Science 2026-04-21 Rui Xu , Jiawei Chen , Weizhi Liu , Zhaoxia Yin , Cong Kong , Xinpeng Zhang

We propose Easymark, a family of embarrassingly simple yet effective watermarks. Text watermarking is becoming increasingly important with the advent of Large Language Models (LLM). LLMs can generate texts that cannot be distinguished from…

Machine Learning · Computer Science 2023-10-16 Ryoma Sato , Yuki Takezawa , Han Bao , Kenta Niwa , Makoto Yamada

Watermarking has recently emerged as an effective strategy for detecting the outputs of large language models (LLMs). Most existing schemes require white-box access to the model's next-token probability distribution, which is typically not…

Cryptography and Security · Computer Science 2026-02-24 Dara Bahri , John Wieting

Potential harms of large language models can be mitigated by watermarking model output, i.e., embedding signals into generated text that are invisible to humans but algorithmically detectable from a short span of tokens. We propose a…

Machine Learning · Computer Science 2024-05-03 John Kirchenbauer , Jonas Geiping , Yuxin Wen , Jonathan Katz , Ian Miers , Tom Goldstein

The rapid advancement of LLMs (Large Language Models) has established them as a foundational technology for many AI and ML-powered human computer interactions. A critical challenge in this context is the attribution of LLM-generated text --…

Cryptography and Security · Computer Science 2026-02-27 Jarosław Janas , Paweł Morawiecki , Josef Pieprzyk

With the rapid growth of Large Language Models (LLMs), safeguarding textual content against unauthorized use is crucial. Watermarking offers a vital solution, protecting both - LLM-generated and plain text sources. This paper presents a…

Computation and Language · Computer Science 2025-07-08 Harsh Nishant Lalai , Aashish Anantha Ramakrishnan , Raj Sanjay Shah , Dongwon Lee

This paper introduces RoSeMary, the first-of-its-kind ML/Crypto codesign watermarking framework that regulates LLM-generated code to avoid intellectual property rights violations and inappropriate misuse in software development.…

Cryptography and Security · Computer Science 2025-02-11 Ruisi Zhang , Neusha Javidnia , Nojan Sheybani , Farinaz Koushanfar
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