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Multiple Instance Learning is the predominant method for Whole Slide Image classification in digital pathology, enabling the use of slide-level labels to supervise model training. Although MIL eliminates the tedious fine-grained annotation…

Computer Vision and Pattern Recognition · Computer Science 2025-05-28 Chen Shu , Boyu Fu , Yiman Li , Ting Yin , Wenchuan Zhang , Jie Chen , Yuhao Yi , Hong Bu

Whole slide images (WSIs) are the gold standard for pathological diagnosis and sub-typing. Current main-stream two-step frameworks employ offline feature encoders trained without domain-specific knowledge. Among them, attention-based…

Computer Vision and Pattern Recognition · Computer Science 2026-02-17 Mingrui Ma , Chentao Li , Pan Huang , Jing Qin

Whole slide imaging is fundamental to biomedical microscopy and computational pathology. Previously, learning representations for gigapixel-sized whole slide images (WSIs) has relied on multiple instance learning with weak labels, which do…

Computer Vision and Pattern Recognition · Computer Science 2024-05-27 Xinhai Hou , Cheng Jiang , Akhil Kondepudi , Yiwei Lyu , Asadur Chowdury , Honglak Lee , Todd C. Hollon

Whole slide images (WSI) are microscopy images of stained tissue slides routinely prepared for diagnosis and treatment selection in medical practice. WSI are very large (gigapixel size) and complex (made of up to millions of cells). The…

Computer Vision and Pattern Recognition · Computer Science 2022-12-08 Tristan Lazard , Marvin Lerousseau , Etienne Decencière , Thomas Walter

Multiple instance learning (MIL)-based framework has become the mainstream for processing the whole slide image (WSI) with giga-pixel size and hierarchical image context in digital pathology. However, these methods heavily depend on a…

Computer Vision and Pattern Recognition · Computer Science 2025-02-13 Jiangbo Shi , Chen Li , Tieliang Gong , Yefeng Zheng , Huazhu Fu

Multiple Instance Learning (MIL) methods allow for gigapixel Whole-Slide Image (WSI) analysis with only slide-level annotations. Interpretability is crucial for safely deploying such algorithms in high-stakes medical domains. Traditional…

Computer Vision and Pattern Recognition · Computer Science 2025-01-07 Susu Sun , Leslie Tessier , Frédérique Meeuwsen , Clément Grisi , Dominique van Midden , Geert Litjens , Christian F. Baumgartner

Due to the lack of fine-grained annotation guidance, current Multiple Instance Learning (MIL) struggles to establish a robust causal relationship between Whole Slide Image (WSI) diagnosis and evidence sub-images, just like fully supervised…

Computer Vision and Pattern Recognition · Computer Science 2025-07-08 Tianhang Nan , Yong Ding , Hao Quan , Deliang Li , Lisha Li , Guanghong Zhao , Xiaoyu Cui

Computer-aided Whole Slide Image (WSI) classification has the potential to enhance the accuracy and efficiency of clinical pathological diagnosis. It is commonly formulated as a Multiple Instance Learning (MIL) problem, where each WSI is…

Computer Vision and Pattern Recognition · Computer Science 2025-04-17 Linhao Qu , Shiman Li , Xiaoyuan Luo , Shaolei Liu , Qinhao Guo , Manning Wang , Zhijian Song

Whole Slide Imaging (WSI) is a cornerstone of digital pathology, offering detailed insights critical for diagnosis and research. Yet, the gigapixel size of WSIs imposes significant computational challenges, limiting their practical utility.…

Image and Video Processing · Electrical Eng. & Systems 2024-11-15 Ravi Kant Gupta , Shounak Das , Amit Sethi

Whole slide imaging (WSI) is an emerging technology for digital pathology. The process of autofocusing is the main influence of the performance of WSI. Traditional autofocusing methods either are time-consuming due to repetitive mechanical…

Image and Video Processing · Electrical Eng. & Systems 2020-03-17 Qiang Li , Xianming Liu , Kaige Han , Cheng Guo , Xiangyang Ji , Xiaolin Wu

Recently there have been many algorithms proposed for the classification of very high resolution whole slide images (WSIs). These new algorithms are mostly focused on finding novel ways to combine the information from small local patches…

Computer Vision and Pattern Recognition · Computer Science 2023-10-06 Long Nguyen , Aiden Nibali , Joshua Millward , Zhen He

Multiple instance learning (MIL) is a powerful tool to solve the weakly supervised classification in whole slide image (WSI) based pathology diagnosis. However, the current MIL methods are usually based on independent and identical…

Computer Vision and Pattern Recognition · Computer Science 2021-11-02 Zhuchen Shao , Hao Bian , Yang Chen , Yifeng Wang , Jian Zhang , Xiangyang Ji , Yongbing Zhang

Traditional image-based survival prediction models rely on discriminative patch labeling which make those methods not scalable to extend to large datasets. Recent studies have shown Multiple Instance Learning (MIL) framework is useful for…

Image and Video Processing · Electrical Eng. & Systems 2020-09-24 Jiawen Yao , Xinliang Zhu , Jitendra Jonnagaddala , Nicholas Hawkins , Junzhou Huang

The first step in Multiple Instance Learning (MIL) algorithms for Whole Slide Image (WSI) classification consists of tiling the input image into smaller patches and computing their feature vectors produced by a pre-trained feature extractor…

Computer Vision and Pattern Recognition · Computer Science 2024-03-11 Juan I. Pisula , Katarzyna Bozek

Multiple instance learning (MIL) has emerged as a popular method for classifying histopathology whole slide images (WSIs). However, existing approaches typically rely on pre-trained models from large natural image datasets, such as…

Computer Vision and Pattern Recognition · Computer Science 2023-03-24 Yi Lin , Zhongchen Zhao , Zhengjie ZHU , Lisheng Wang , Kwang-Ting Cheng , Hao Chen

In the application of Multiple Instance Learning (MIL) methods for Whole Slide Image (WSI) classification, attention mechanisms often focus on a subset of discriminative instances, which are closely linked to overfitting. To mitigate…

Computer Vision and Pattern Recognition · Computer Science 2024-07-08 Yunlong Zhang , Honglin Li , Yuxuan Sun , Sunyi Zheng , Chenglu Zhu , Lin Yang

Digital histopathology whole slide images (WSIs) provide gigapixel-scale high-resolution images that are highly useful for disease diagnosis. However, digital histopathology image analysis faces significant challenges due to the limited…

Computer Vision and Pattern Recognition · Computer Science 2026-02-13 Bodong Zhang , Xiwen Li , Hamid Manoochehri , Xiaoya Tang , Deepika Sirohi , Beatrice S. Knudsen , Tolga Tasdizen

Multiple Instance Learning (MIL) has been widely used in weakly supervised whole slide image (WSI) classification. Typical MIL methods include a feature embedding part, which embeds the instances into features via a pre-trained feature…

Computer Vision and Pattern Recognition · Computer Science 2024-08-02 Peijie Qiu , Pan Xiao , Wenhui Zhu , Yalin Wang , Aristeidis Sotiras

Weakly supervised whole slide image classification is usually formulated as a multiple instance learning (MIL) problem, where each slide is treated as a bag, and the patches cut out of it are treated as instances. Existing methods either…

Computer Vision and Pattern Recognition · Computer Science 2024-05-14 Linhao Qu , Yingfan Ma , Xiaoyuan Luo , Manning Wang , Zhijian Song

While multiple instance learning (MIL) has shown to be a promising approach for histopathological whole slide image (WSI) analysis, its reliance on permutation invariance significantly limits its capacity to effectively uncover semantic…

Image and Video Processing · Electrical Eng. & Systems 2025-07-14 Xiwen Chen , Peijie Qiu , Wenhui Zhu , Hao Wang , Huayu Li , Xuanzhao Dong , Xiaotong Sun , Xiaobing Yu , Yalin Wang , Abolfazl Razi , Aristeidis Sotiras