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A Stackelberg game is played between a leader and a follower. The leader first chooses an action, then the follower plays his best response. The goal of the leader is to pick the action that will maximize his payoff given the follower's…

Data Structures and Algorithms · Computer Science 2015-11-19 Aaron Roth , Jonathan Ullman , Zhiwei Steven Wu

When interacting with other decision-making agents in non-adversarial scenarios, it is critical for an autonomous agent to have inferable behavior: The agent's actions must convey their intention and strategy. We model the inferability…

Computer Science and Game Theory · Computer Science 2025-06-03 Mustafa O. Karabag , Sophia Smith , Negar Mehr , David Fridovich-Keil , Ufuk Topcu

In this paper, we study an inverse reinforcement learning problem that involves learning the reward function of a learning agent using trajectory data collected while this agent is learning its optimal policy. To address this problem, we…

Machine Learning · Computer Science 2024-10-21 Kavinayan P. Sivakumar , Yi Shen , Zachary Bell , Scott Nivison , Boyuan Chen , Michael M. Zavlanos

The hierarchical interaction between the actor and critic in actor-critic based reinforcement learning algorithms naturally lends itself to a game-theoretic interpretation. We adopt this viewpoint and model the actor and critic interaction…

Machine Learning · Computer Science 2021-09-28 Liyuan Zheng , Tanner Fiez , Zane Alumbaugh , Benjamin Chasnov , Lillian J. Ratliff

We consider a repeated sequential game between a learner, who plays first, and an opponent who responds to the chosen action. We seek to design strategies for the learner to successfully interact with the opponent. While most previous…

Machine Learning · Computer Science 2020-07-13 Pier Giuseppe Sessa , Ilija Bogunovic , Maryam Kamgarpour , Andreas Krause

As predictive models are deployed into the real world, they must increasingly contend with strategic behavior. A growing body of work on strategic classification treats this problem as a Stackelberg game: the decision-maker "leads" in the…

Machine Learning · Computer Science 2022-02-01 Tijana Zrnic , Eric Mazumdar , S. Shankar Sastry , Michael I. Jordan

Machine learning systems have been widely used to make decisions about individuals who may behave strategically to receive favorable outcomes, e.g., they may genuinely improve the true labels or manipulate observable features directly to…

Artificial Intelligence · Computer Science 2024-10-30 Tian Xie , Zhiqun Zuo , Mohammad Mahdi Khalili , Xueru Zhang

Game-theoretic models are effective tools for modeling multi-agent interactions, especially when robots need to coordinate with humans. However, applying these models requires inferring their specifications from observed behaviors -- a…

Robotics · Computer Science 2025-02-06 Max Muchen Sun , Pete Trautman , Todd Murphey

Many multi-agent interaction scenarios can be naturally modeled as noncooperative games, where each agent's decisions depend on others' future actions. However, deploying game-theoretic planners for autonomous decision-making requires a…

Machine Learning · Computer Science 2026-01-05 Yash Jain , Xinjie Liu , Lasse Peters , David Fridovich-Keil , Ufuk Topcu

In multi-agent problems requiring a high degree of cooperation, success often depends on the ability of the agents to adapt to each other's behavior. A natural solution concept in such settings is the Stackelberg equilibrium, in which the…

Machine Learning · Computer Science 2024-06-14 Robert Loftin , Mustafa Mert Çelikok , Herke van Hoof , Samuel Kaski , Frans A. Oliehoek

Inverse reinforcement learning (IRL) aims to learn a reward function and a corresponding policy that best fit the demonstrated trajectories of an expert. However, current IRL works cannot learn incrementally from an ongoing trajectory…

Machine Learning · Computer Science 2025-07-24 Shicheng Liu , Minghui Zhu

We study Stackelberg equilibria in finitely repeated games, where the leader commits to a strategy that picks actions in each round and can be adaptive to the history of play (i.e. they commit to an algorithm). In particular, we study…

Computer Science and Game Theory · Computer Science 2024-03-08 Natalie Collina , Eshwar Ram Arunachaleswaran , Michael Kearns

We consider the following two-player game: using observational data, the leader chooses a prediction function for a response variable $Y$ from given covariates. The follower then reacts with an intervention on some covariates in the…

Machine Learning · Statistics 2026-05-19 Linus Kühne , Felix Schur , Jonas Peters

Existing methods for learning Stackelberg equilibria typically assume that the followers' (variational, generalized) Nash equilibrium is unique. However, in the presence of multiple equilibria, without a selection convention, the problem…

Optimization and Control · Mathematics 2026-04-30 Silvia Cianchi , Anibal Sanjab , Sergio Grammatico

This paper investigates the convergence of learning dynamics in Stackelberg games. In the class of games we consider, there is a hierarchical game being played between a leader and a follower with continuous action spaces. We establish a…

Computer Science and Game Theory · Computer Science 2024-12-07 Tanner Fiez , Benjamin Chasnov , Lillian J. Ratliff

We study payoff manipulation in repeated multi-objective Stackelberg games, where a leader may strategically influence a follower's deterministic best response, e.g., by offering a share of their own payoff. We assume that the follower's…

Computer Science and Game Theory · Computer Science 2025-08-27 Phurinut Srisawad , Juergen Branke , Long Tran-Thanh

Many real-world strategic games involve interactions between multiple players. We study a hierarchical multi-player game structure, where players with asymmetric roles can be separated into leaders and followers, a setting often referred to…

Machine Learning · Computer Science 2022-10-25 Yaolong Yu , Haifeng Xu , Haipeng Chen

We consider the problem of efficiently learning to play single-leader multi-follower Stackelberg games when the leader lacks knowledge of the lower-level game. Such games arise in hierarchical decision-making problems involving…

Systems and Control · Electrical Eng. & Systems 2025-12-11 Anna Maddux , Marko Maljkovic , Nikolas Geroliminis , Maryam Kamgarpour

Effectively predicting intent and behavior requires inferring leadership in multi-agent interactions. Dynamic games provide an expressive theoretical framework for modeling these interactions. Employing this framework, we propose a novel…

Multiagent Systems · Computer Science 2024-04-10 Hamzah Khan , David Fridovich-Keil

We initiate the study of structured Stackelberg games, a novel form of strategic interaction between a leader and a follower where contextual information can be predictive of the follower's (unknown) type. Motivated by applications such as…

Computer Science and Game Theory · Computer Science 2026-05-18 Maria-Florina Balcan , Kiriaki Fragkia , Keegan Harris