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A broad class of hybrid quantum-classical algorithms known as "variational algorithms" have been proposed in the context of quantum simulation, machine learning, and combinatorial optimization as a means of potentially achieving a quantum…

Quantum Physics · Physics 2021-04-09 Aram Harrow , John Napp

Randomized protocols are procedures that incorporate probabilistic choices during their execution and they play a central role in quantum algorithms, spanning Hamiltonian simulation, noise mitigation, and measurement tasks. In practical…

Quantum Physics · Physics 2026-03-17 Davide Cugini , Touheed Anwar Atif , Yigit Subasi

Classical shadows (CS) has recently emerged as an important framework to efficiently predict properties of an unknown quantum state. A common strategy in CS protocols is to parametrize the basis in which one measures the state by a random…

Obtaining precise estimates of quantum observables is a crucial step of variational quantum algorithms. We consider the problem of estimating expectation values of molecular Hamiltonians, obtained on states prepared on a quantum computer.…

Quantum Physics · Physics 2020-06-30 Charles Hadfield , Sergey Bravyi , Rudy Raymond , Antonio Mezzacapo

We investigate the dynamics of two-dimensional quantum spin systems under the combined effect of random unitary gates and local projective measurements. When considering steady states, a measurement-induced transition occurs between two…

Statistical Mechanics · Physics 2020-10-16 Xhek Turkeshi , Rosario Fazio , Marcello Dalmonte

We introduce Sketch Tomography, an efficient procedure for quantum state tomography based on the classical shadow protocol used for quantum observable estimations. The procedure applies to the case where the ground truth quantum state is a…

Quantum Physics · Physics 2026-05-27 Xun Tang , Haoxuan Chen , Yuehaw Khoo , Lexing Ying

Interfacing quantum and classical processors is an important subroutine in full-stack quantum algorithms. The so-called "classical shadow" method efficiently extracts essential classical information from quantum states, enabling the…

Quantum Physics · Physics 2025-09-11 Shuowei Ma , Junyu Liu

Reconstructing the state of a complex quantum system represents a pivotal task for all quantum information applications, both for characterization purposes and for verification of quantum protocols. Recent technological developments have…

Characterizing quantum processes is essential for unlocking the potential of quantum devices. However, standard quantum process tomography is resource-intensive and becomes infeasible on large-scale systems. Despite alternative approaches…

Quantum Physics · Physics 2026-02-24 Hao Zhan , Zongbo Bao , Zekun Ye , Qianyi Wang , Minghao Mi , Penghui Yao , Lijian Zhang

We study classical shadows protocols based on randomized measurements in $n$-qubit entangled bases, generalizing the random Pauli measurement protocol ($n = 1$). We show that entangled measurements ($n\geq 2$) enable nontrivial and…

Quantum Physics · Physics 2024-03-27 Matteo Ippoliti

The concept of randomized measurements on individual particles has proven to be useful for analyzing quantum systems and is central for methods like shadow tomography of quantum states. We introduce $\textit{collective}$ randomized…

Quantum Physics · Physics 2024-08-12 Satoya Imai , Géza Tóth , Otfried Gühne

The impressive pace of advance of quantum technology calls for robust and scalable techniques for the characterization and validation of quantum hardware. Quantum process tomography, the reconstruction of an unknown quantum channel from…

Quantum information science strives to leverage the quantum-mechanical nature of our universe in order to achieve large improvements in certain information processing tasks. In deep-space optical communications, current receivers for the…

Quantum Physics · Physics 2020-04-16 Narayanan Rengaswamy

Extracting tomographic information about quantum states is a crucial task in the quest towards devising high-precision quantum devices. Current schemes typically require measurement devices for tomography that are a priori calibrated to…

Quantum Physics · Physics 2023-07-13 Ingo Roth , Jadwiga Wilkens , Dominik Hangleiter , Jens Eisert

Variational quantum circuits characterise the state of a quantum system through the use of parameters that are optimised using classical optimisation procedures that typically rely on gradient information. The circuit-execution complexity…

Quantum Physics · Physics 2023-07-28 Sayantan Pramanik , Chaitanya Murti , M Girish Chandra

We provide a new perspective on shadow tomography by demonstrating its deep connections with the general theory of measurement frames. By showing that the formalism of measurement frames offers a natural framework for shadow tomography --…

Estimation of expectation values of incompatible observables is an essential practical task in quantum computing, especially for approximating energies of chemical and other many-body quantum systems. In this work we introduce a method for…

Quantum Physics · Physics 2023-03-14 Daniel McNulty , Filip B. Maciejewski , Michał Oszmaniec

Expectation values of observables are routinely estimated using so-called classical shadows$\unicode{x2014}$the outcomes of randomized bases measurements on a repeatedly prepared quantum state. In order to trust the accuracy of shadow…

Quantum Physics · Physics 2025-03-07 Raphael Brieger , Markus Heinrich , Ingo Roth , Martin Kliesch

The quantum statistical fluctuations of the electromagnetic field establish a limit, known as the shot-noise limit, on the sensitivity of optical measurements performed with classical technologies. However, quantum technologies are not…

Robust, accurate and efficient quantum tomography is key for future quantum technologies. Traditional methods are impractical for even medium sized systems and are not robust against noise and errors. Here we report on an experimental…

Quantum Physics · Physics 2016-07-27 Robert J. Chapman , Christopher Ferrie , Alberto Peruzzo