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Multiple Instance Learning (MIL) for whole slide image (WSI) analysis in computational pathology often neglects instance-level learning as supervision is typically provided only at the bag level, hindering the integrated consideration of…

Computer Vision and Pattern Recognition · Computer Science 2025-09-26 Shuyang Wu , Yifu Qiu , Ines P. Nearchou , Sandrine Prost , Jonathan A. Fallowfield , Hideki Ueno , Hitoshi Tsuda , David J. Harrison , Hakan Bilen , Timothy J. Kendall

Whole Slide Imaging (WSI), which involves high-resolution digital scans of pathology slides, has become the gold standard for cancer diagnosis, but its gigapixel resolution and the scarcity of annotated datasets present challenges for deep…

Image and Video Processing · Electrical Eng. & Systems 2025-02-03 Rita Pereira , M. Rita Verdelho , Catarina Barata , Carlos Santiago

Supervised learning tasks such as cancer survival prediction from gigapixel whole slide images (WSIs) are a critical challenge in computational pathology that requires modeling complex features of the tumor microenvironment. These learning…

Image and Video Processing · Electrical Eng. & Systems 2022-11-22 Iain Carmichael , Andrew H. Song , Richard J. Chen , Drew F. K. Williamson , Tiffany Y. Chen , Faisal Mahmood

Multiple instance learning (MIL) is a key algorithm for classification of whole slide images (WSI). Histology WSIs can have billions of pixels, which create enormous computational and annotation challenges. Typically, such images are…

Image and Video Processing · Electrical Eng. & Systems 2021-11-03 Andriy Myronenko , Ziyue Xu , Dong Yang , Holger Roth , Daguang Xu

Current approaches for classification of whole slide images (WSI) in digital pathology predominantly utilize a two-stage learning pipeline. The first stage identifies areas of interest (e.g. tumor tissue), while the second stage processes…

Computer Vision and Pattern Recognition · Computer Science 2022-07-20 Marvin Teichmann , Andre Aichert , Hanibal Bohnenberger , Philipp Ströbel , Tobias Heimann

Whole Slide Image (WSI) classification remains a challenge due to their extremely high resolution and the absence of fine-grained labels. Presently, WSI classification is usually regarded as a Multiple Instance Learning (MIL) problem when…

Computer Vision and Pattern Recognition · Computer Science 2023-08-24 Hongyi Wang , Luyang Luo , Fang Wang , Ruofeng Tong , Yen-Wei Chen , Hongjie Hu , Lanfen Lin , Hao Chen

Breast cancer is the most prevalent cancer in women worldwide. Histopathology image analysis serves as the gold standard for cancer diagnosis. In this regard, whole-slide imaging (WSI), a revolutionary technology in digital pathology,…

Methodology · Statistics 2026-04-21 Baichen Yu , Xuetong Li , Jing Zhou , Hansheng Wang

Whole slide image (WSI) classification often relies on deep weakly supervised multiple instance learning (MIL) methods to handle gigapixel resolution images and slide-level labels. Yet the decent performance of deep learning comes from…

Computer Vision and Pattern Recognition · Computer Science 2022-07-06 Jiawei Yang , Hanbo Chen , Yu Zhao , Fan Yang , Yao Zhang , Lei He , Jianhua Yao

Multiple Instance Learning (MIL) methods have become increasingly popular for classifying giga-pixel sized Whole-Slide Images (WSIs) in digital pathology. Most MIL methods operate at a single WSI magnification, by processing all the tissue…

Computer Vision and Pattern Recognition · Computer Science 2022-07-27 Kevin Thandiackal , Boqi Chen , Pushpak Pati , Guillaume Jaume , Drew F. K. Williamson , Maria Gabrani , Orcun Goksel

In recent years, the integration of pre-trained foundational models with multiple instance learning (MIL) has improved diagnostic accuracy in computational pathology. However, existing MIL methods focus on optimizing feature extractors and…

Computer Vision and Pattern Recognition · Computer Science 2025-12-24 Le Feng , Li Xiao

In digital pathology, Whole Slide Image (WSI) analysis is usually formulated as a Multiple Instance Learning (MIL) problem. Although transformer-based architectures have been used for WSI classification, these methods require modifications…

Computer Vision and Pattern Recognition · Computer Science 2023-10-03 Juan I. Pisula , Katarzyna Bozek

Multiple instance learning (MIL) has been widely used for representing whole-slide pathology images. However, spatial, semantic, and decision entanglements among instances limit its representation and interpretability. To address these…

Computer Vision and Pattern Recognition · Computer Science 2025-11-05 Chentao Li , Behzad Bozorgtabar , Yifang Ping , Pan Huang , Jing Qin

Multiple instance learning (MIL) is the preferred approach for whole slide image classification. However, most MIL approaches do not exploit the interdependencies of tiles extracted from a whole slide image, which could provide valuable…

Computer Vision and Pattern Recognition · Computer Science 2021-08-26 Marvin Lerousseau , Maria Vakalopoulou , Eric Deutsch , Nikos Paragios

Due to its superior efficiency in utilizing annotations and addressing gigapixel-sized images, multiple instance learning (MIL) has shown great promise as a framework for whole slide image (WSI) classification in digital pathology…

Quantitative Methods · Quantitative Biology 2023-07-14 Qiehe Sun , Jiawen Li , Jin Xu , Junru Cheng , Tian Guan , Yonghong He

Whole slide image (WSI) classification requires repetitive zoom-in and out for pathologists, as only small portions of the slide may be relevant to detecting cancer. Due to the lack of patch-level labels, multiple instance learning (MIL) is…

Computer Vision and Pattern Recognition · Computer Science 2023-11-30 Seongho Keum , Sanghyun Kim , Soojeong Lee , Juho Lee

Multiple Instance Learning (MIL) methods allow for gigapixel Whole-Slide Image (WSI) analysis with only slide-level annotations. Interpretability is crucial for safely deploying such algorithms in high-stakes medical domains. Traditional…

Computer Vision and Pattern Recognition · Computer Science 2025-01-07 Susu Sun , Leslie Tessier , Frédérique Meeuwsen , Clément Grisi , Dominique van Midden , Geert Litjens , Christian F. Baumgartner

In many histopathology tasks, sample classification depends on morphological details in tissue or single cells that are only visible at the highest magnification. For a pathologist, this implies tedious zooming in and out, while for a…

Computer Vision and Pattern Recognition · Computer Science 2023-03-03 Ario Sadafi , Nassir Navab , Carsten Marr

Multi-Instance Learning (MIL) has shown impressive performance for histopathology whole slide image (WSI) analysis using bags or pseudo-bags. It involves instance sampling, feature representation, and decision-making. However, existing…

Computer Vision and Pattern Recognition · Computer Science 2024-03-14 Tingting Zheng , Kui Jiang , Hongxun Yao

Although multiple instance learning (MIL) methods are widely used for automatic tumor detection on whole slide images (WSI), they suffer from the extreme class imbalance within the small tumor WSIs. This occurs when the tumor comprises only…

Computer Vision and Pattern Recognition · Computer Science 2023-09-19 Ziyu Su , Mostafa Rezapour , Usama Sajjad , Shuo Niu , Metin Nafi Gurcan , Muhammad Khalid Khan Niazi

Multiple Instance Learning (MIL) has become the predominant approach for classification tasks on gigapixel histopathology whole slide images (WSIs). Within the MIL framework, single WSIs (bags) are decomposed into patches (instances), with…

Computer Vision and Pattern Recognition · Computer Science 2023-03-03 Daniel Sens , Ario Sadafi , Francesco Paolo Casale , Nassir Navab , Carsten Marr