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The backpropagation algorithm, despite its widespread use in neural network learning, may not accurately emulate the human cortex's learning process. Alternative strategies, such as the Forward-Forward Algorithm (FFA), offer a closer match…

Neural and Evolutionary Computing · Computer Science 2023-05-23 Desmond Y. M. Tang

The Forward-Forward (FF) algorithm presents a compelling, bio-inspired alternative to backpropagation. However, while efficient in training, it has a computationally prohibitive inference process that requires a separate forward pass for…

Machine Learning · Computer Science 2026-05-04 Shalini Sarode , Brian Moser , Joachim Folz , Federico Raue , Tobias Nauen , Stanislav Frolov , Andreas Dengel

Neural networks (NN) have demonstrated remarkable capabilities in various tasks, but their computation-intensive nature demands faster and more energy-efficient hardware implementations. Optics-based platforms, using technologies such as…

We introduce a fast Self-adapting Forward-Forward Network (SaFF-Net) for medical imaging analysis, mitigating power consumption and resource limitations, which currently primarily stem from the prevalent reliance on back-propagation for…

Computer Vision and Pattern Recognition · Computer Science 2024-07-18 Johanna P. Müller , Bernhard Kainz

The so-called Forward-Forward Algorithm (FFA) has recently gained momentum as an alternative to the conventional back-propagation algorithm for neural network learning, yielding competitive performance across various modeling tasks. By…

Machine Learning · Computer Science 2025-01-10 Erik B. Terres-Escudero , Javier Del Ser , Pablo Garcia Bringas

Forward-only learning algorithms have recently gained attention as alternatives to gradient backpropagation, replacing the backward step of this latter solver with an additional contrastive forward pass. Among these approaches, the…

Machine Learning · Computer Science 2024-09-12 Erik B. Terres-Escudero , Javier Del Ser , Pablo Garcia-Bringas

Advances in neural computation have predominantly relied on the gradient backpropagation algorithm (BP). However, the recent shift towards non-stationary data modeling has highlighted the limitations of this heuristic, exposing that its…

Neural and Evolutionary Computing · Computer Science 2024-06-25 Erik B. Terres-Escudero , Javier Del Ser , Pablo García-Bringas

Backpropagation remains the dominant algorithm for training deep neural networks, but it incurs substantial memory overhead and relies on global error propagation, which is often regarded as biologically implausible. The Forward-Forward…

Machine Learning · Computer Science 2026-05-08 James Gong , Bruce Li , Waleed Abdulla

Although backpropagation is widely accepted as a training algorithm for artificial neural networks, researchers are always looking for inspiration from the brain to find ways with potentially better performance. Forward-Forward is a novel…

Computer Vision and Pattern Recognition · Computer Science 2025-12-02 Hossein Aghagolzadeh , Mehdi Ezoji

Self-supervised representation learning has seen remarkable progress in the last few years, with some of the recent methods being able to learn useful image representations without labels. These methods are trained using backpropagation,…

Computer Vision and Pattern Recognition · Computer Science 2023-12-11 Jonas Brenig , Radu Timofte

Backpropagation algorithm has been widely used as a mainstream learning procedure for neural networks in the past decade, and has played a significant role in the development of deep learning. However, there exist some limitations…

Computer Vision and Pattern Recognition · Computer Science 2023-12-12 Gongpei Zhao , Tao Wang , Yidong Li , Yi Jin , Congyan Lang , Haibin Ling

The Forward-Forward algorithm is an alternative learning method which consists of two forward passes rather than a forward and backward pass employed by backpropagation. Forward-Forward networks employ layer local loss functions which are…

Machine Learning · Computer Science 2025-04-16 Reece Adamson

The Backpropagation algorithm has often been criticised for its lack of biological realism. In an attempt to find a more biologically plausible alternative, the recently introduced Forward-Forward algorithm replaces the forward and backward…

Neural and Evolutionary Computing · Computer Science 2025-04-01 Niccolò Tosato , Lorenzo Basile , Emanuele Ballarin , Giuseppe de Alteriis , Alberto Cazzaniga , Alessio Ansuini

The forward-forward algorithm presents a new method of training neural networks by updating weights during an inference, performing parameter updates for each layer individually. This immediately reduces memory requirements during training…

Machine Learning · Computer Science 2023-06-28 Michael Hopwood

The development of the back-propagation algorithm represents a landmark in neural networks. We provide an approach that conducts the back-propagation again to reverse the traditional back-propagation process to optimize the input loss at…

Machine Learning · Computer Science 2022-02-15 Weiming Xiong , Ruoyu Yang

Recent successes in image analysis with deep neural networks are achieved almost exclusively with Convolutional Neural Networks (CNNs), typically trained using the backpropagation (BP) algorithm. In a 2022 preprint, Geoffrey Hinton proposed…

Computer Vision and Pattern Recognition · Computer Science 2025-11-05 Riccardo Scodellaro , Ajinkya Kulkarni , Frauke Alves , Matthias Schröter

The Forward-Forward (FF) algorithm was recently proposed as a local learning method to address the limitations of backpropagation (BP), offering biological plausibility along with memory-efficient and highly parallelized computational…

Neural and Evolutionary Computing · Computer Science 2024-08-28 Yujie Wu , Siyuan Xu , Jibin Wu , Lei Deng , Mingkun Xu , Qinghao Wen , Guoqi Li

Function regression/approximation is a fundamental application of machine learning. Neural networks (NNs) can be easily trained for function regression using a sufficient number of neurons and epochs. The forward-forward learning algorithm…

Machine Learning · Computer Science 2025-10-16 Shivam Padmani , Akshay Joshi

The aim of this paper is to introduce a new learning procedure for neural networks and to demonstrate that it works well enough on a few small problems to be worth further investigation. The Forward-Forward algorithm replaces the forward…

Machine Learning · Computer Science 2022-12-29 Geoffrey Hinton

Backpropagation is the pivotal algorithm underpinning the success of artificial neural networks, yet it has critical limitations such as biologically implausible backward locking and global error propagation. To circumvent these…

Machine Learning · Computer Science 2025-09-11 James Gong , Raymond Luo , Emma Wang , Leon Ge , Bruce Li , Felix Marattukalam , Waleed Abdulla
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