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The limits of applicability of vision-and-language models are defined by the coverage of their training data. Tasks like vision question answering (VQA) often require commonsense and factual information beyond what can be learned from…

Computer Vision and Pattern Recognition · Computer Science 2021-01-18 Violetta Shevchenko , Damien Teney , Anthony Dick , Anton van den Hengel

The transformer architecture has demonstrated remarkable capabilities in modern artificial intelligence, among which the capability of implicitly learning an internal model during inference time is widely believed to play a key role in the…

Machine Learning · Computer Science 2026-02-10 Zhiheng Chen , Ruofan Wu , Guanhua Fang

Transformers are extremely successful machine learning models whose mathematical properties remain poorly understood. Here, we rigorously characterize the behavior of transformers with hardmax self-attention and normalization sublayers as…

Computation and Language · Computer Science 2026-05-14 Albert Alcalde , Giovanni Fantuzzi , Enrique Zuazua

Transformers have reshaped machine learning by utilizing attention mechanisms to capture complex patterns in large datasets, leading to significant improvements in performance. This success has contributed to the belief that "bigger means…

Machine Learning · Computer Science 2025-05-28 Hemanth Saratchandran , Damien Teney , Simon Lucey

The Transformer is a highly successful deep learning model that has revolutionised the world of artificial neural networks, first in natural language processing and later in computer vision. This model is based on the attention mechanism…

Machine Learning · Computer Science 2023-05-09 Riccardo Ughi , Eugenio Lomurno , Matteo Matteucci

Transformers have become central to natural language processing and large language models, but their deployment at scale faces three major challenges. First, the attention mechanism requires massive matrix multiplications and frequent…

Hardware Architecture · Computer Science 2026-01-22 Xiaoxuan Yang , Peilin Chen , Tergel Molom-Ochir , Yiran Chen

Large Language Models (LLMs) are versatile, yet they often falter in tasks requiring deep and reliable reasoning due to issues like hallucinations, limiting their applicability in critical scenarios. This paper introduces a rigorously…

Computation and Language · Computer Science 2023-11-21 Saizhuo Wang , Zhihan Liu , Zhaoran Wang , Jian Guo

Recurrent Neural Networks were, until recently, one of the best ways to capture the timely dependencies in sequences. However, with the introduction of the Transformer, it has been proven that an architecture with only attention-mechanisms…

Machine Learning · Computer Science 2021-08-19 Radostin Cholakov , Todor Kolev

We conduct the first empirical study on using knowledge transfer to improve the generalization ability of large language models (LLMs) in software engineering tasks, which often require LLMs to generalize beyond their training data. Our…

Software Engineering · Computer Science 2023-08-10 Qing Huang , Yishun Wu , Zhenchang Xing , He Jiang , Yu Cheng , Huan Jin

Transformers have recently shown superior performances on various vision tasks. The large, sometimes even global, receptive field endows Transformer models with higher representation power over their CNN counterparts. Nevertheless, simply…

Computer Vision and Pattern Recognition · Computer Science 2022-05-25 Zhuofan Xia , Xuran Pan , Shiji Song , Li Erran Li , Gao Huang

Transformers have dominated empirical machine learning models of natural language processing. In this paper, we introduce basic concepts of Transformers and present key techniques that form the recent advances of these models. This includes…

Computation and Language · Computer Science 2023-11-30 Tong Xiao , Jingbo Zhu

The neural architectures of language models are becoming increasingly complex, especially that of Transformers, based on the attention mechanism. Although their application to numerous natural language processing tasks has proven to be very…

Computation and Language · Computer Science 2023-12-04 Pablo Gamallo

This work presents a novel systematic methodology to analyse the capabilities and limitations of Large Language Models (LLMs) with feedback from a formal inference engine, on logic theory induction. The analysis is complexity-graded w.r.t.…

Computation and Language · Computer Science 2025-01-15 João Pedro Gandarela , Danilo S. Carvalho , André Freitas

Large language models (LLMs) based on transformer architectures are typically described through collections of architectural components and training procedures, obscuring their underlying computational structure. This review article…

Machine Learning · Computer Science 2026-02-03 Vikram Krishnamurthy

Mechanisms for encoding positional information are central for transformer-based language models. In this paper, we analyze the position embeddings of existing language models, finding strong evidence of translation invariance, both for the…

Computation and Language · Computer Science 2021-06-04 Ulme Wennberg , Gustav Eje Henter

Attention based language models have become a critical component in state-of-the-art natural language processing systems. However, these models have significant computational requirements, due to long training times, dense operations and…

Computation and Language · Computer Science 2021-06-11 Ivan Chelombiev , Daniel Justus , Douglas Orr , Anastasia Dietrich , Frithjof Gressmann , Alexandros Koliousis , Carlo Luschi

The multi-head self-attention mechanism of the transformer model has been thoroughly investigated recently. In one vein of study, researchers are interested in understanding why and how transformers work. In another vein, researchers…

Computation and Language · Computer Science 2022-10-28 Raymond Li , Wen Xiao , Linzi Xing , Lanjun Wang , Gabriel Murray , Giuseppe Carenini

Large Transformer-based language models can aid human authors by suggesting plausible continuations of text written so far. However, current interactive writing assistants do not allow authors to guide text generation in desired topical…

Computation and Language · Computer Science 2021-03-30 Haw-Shiuan Chang , Jiaming Yuan , Mohit Iyyer , Andrew McCallum

Transformer-based models have demonstrated remarkable in-context learning capabilities, prompting extensive research into its underlying mechanisms. Recent studies have suggested that Transformers can implement first-order optimization…

Machine Learning · Computer Science 2024-03-06 Angeliki Giannou , Liu Yang , Tianhao Wang , Dimitris Papailiopoulos , Jason D. Lee

In recent years, large language models (LLMs), such as GPTs, have attained great impact worldwide. However, how to adapt these LLMs to better suit the vertical domain-specific tasks by utilizing external knowledge remains not completely…

Computation and Language · Computer Science 2023-11-03 Peng Fu , Yiming Zhang , Haobo Wang , Weikang Qiu , Junbo Zhao