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Function regression/approximation is a fundamental application of machine learning. Neural networks (NNs) can be easily trained for function regression using a sufficient number of neurons and epochs. The forward-forward learning algorithm…

Machine Learning · Computer Science 2025-10-16 Shivam Padmani , Akshay Joshi

We theoretically analyze the Feedback Alignment (FA) algorithm, an efficient alternative to backpropagation for training neural networks. We provide convergence guarantees with rates for deep linear networks for both continuous and discrete…

Machine Learning · Computer Science 2021-10-22 Manuela Girotti , Ioannis Mitliagkas , Gauthier Gidel

After the tremendous development of neural networks trained by backpropagation, it is a good time to develop other algorithms for training neural networks to gain more insights into networks. In this paper, we propose a new algorithm for…

Machine Learning · Computer Science 2020-07-01 Benyamin Ghojogh , Fakhri Karray , Mark Crowley

We introduce a fast Self-adapting Forward-Forward Network (SaFF-Net) for medical imaging analysis, mitigating power consumption and resource limitations, which currently primarily stem from the prevalent reliance on back-propagation for…

Computer Vision and Pattern Recognition · Computer Science 2024-07-18 Johanna P. Müller , Bernhard Kainz

The Forward-Forward (FF) Algorithm has been recently proposed to alleviate the issues of backpropagation (BP) commonly used to train deep neural networks. However, its current formulation exhibits limitations such as the generation of…

Machine Learning · Computer Science 2024-03-29 Andreas Papachristodoulou , Christos Kyrkou , Stelios Timotheou , Theocharis Theocharides

The application of deep learning to the area of communications systems has been a growing field of interest in recent years. Forward-forward (FF) learning is an efficient alternative to the backpropagation (BP) algorithm, which is the…

Information Theory · Computer Science 2026-02-17 Daniel Seifert , Onur Günlü , Rafael F. Schaefer

We propose a scalable Forward-Forward (FF) algorithm that eliminates the need for backpropagation by training each layer separately. Unlike backpropagation, FF avoids backward gradients and can be more modular and memory efficient, making…

Machine Learning · Computer Science 2025-01-07 Andrii Krutsylo

Backpropagation has been the cornerstone of neural network training for decades, yet its inefficiencies in time and energy consumption limit its suitability for resource-constrained edge devices. While low-precision neural network…

Machine Learning · Computer Science 2025-07-01 Jingxiao Ma , Priyadarshini Panda , Sherief Reda

In many classification problems a classifier should be robust to small variations in the input vector. This is a desired property not only for particular transformations, such as translation and rotation in image classification problems,…

Machine Learning · Statistics 2016-01-18 Sergey Demyanov , James Bailey , Ramamohanarao Kotagiri , Christopher Leckie

Recent years have witnessed the outstanding success of deep learning in various fields such as vision and natural language processing. This success is largely indebted to the massive size of deep learning models that is expected to increase…

Machine Learning · Computer Science 2023-06-14 Ali Momeni , Babak Rahmani , Matthieu Mallejac , Philipp Del Hougne , Romain Fleury

We present the Graph Forward-Forward (GFF) algorithm, an extension of the Forward-Forward procedure to graphs, able to handle features distributed over a graph's nodes. This allows training graph neural networks with forward passes only,…

Machine Learning · Computer Science 2023-02-13 Daniele Paliotta , Mathieu Alain , Bálint Máté , François Fleuret

Backpropagation remains the dominant algorithm for training deep neural networks, but it incurs substantial memory overhead and relies on global error propagation, which is often regarded as biologically implausible. The Forward-Forward…

Machine Learning · Computer Science 2026-05-08 James Gong , Bruce Li , Waleed Abdulla

In natural vision, feedback connections support versatile visual inference capabilities such as making sense of the occluded or noisy bottom-up sensory information or mediating pure top-down processes such as imagination. However, the…

Neurons and Cognition · Quantitative Biology 2023-11-01 Tahereh Toosi , Elias B. Issa

Incorporating the Forward Forward algorithm into neural network training represents a transformative shift from traditional methods, introducing a dual forward mechanism that streamlines the learning process by bypassing the complexities of…

Machine Learning · Computer Science 2024-09-25 Mitra Bakhshi

Recent successes in image analysis with deep neural networks are achieved almost exclusively with Convolutional Neural Networks (CNNs), typically trained using the backpropagation (BP) algorithm. In a 2022 preprint, Geoffrey Hinton proposed…

Computer Vision and Pattern Recognition · Computer Science 2025-11-05 Riccardo Scodellaro , Ajinkya Kulkarni , Frauke Alves , Matthias Schröter

The Forward-Forward algorithm eliminates backpropagation's memory constraints and biological implausibility through dual forward passes with positive and negative data. However, conventional implementations suffer from critical inter-layer…

Machine Learning · Computer Science 2025-12-23 Salar Beigzad

Backpropagation has long been criticized for being biologically implausible due to its reliance on concepts that are not viable in natural learning processes. Two core issues are the weight transport and update locking problems caused by…

Machine Learning · Computer Science 2026-01-14 Katharina Flügel , Daniel Coquelin , Marie Weiel , Charlotte Debus , Achim Streit , Markus Götz

Back-propagation algorithm is one of the most widely used and popular techniques to optimize the feed forward neural network training. Nature inspired meta-heuristic algorithms also provide derivative-free solution to optimize complex…

Neural and Evolutionary Computing · Computer Science 2012-09-13 Sudarshan Nandy , Partha Pratim Sarkar , Achintya Das

Iterative approximation methods using backpropagation enable the optimization of neural networks, but they remain computationally expensive, especially when used at scale. This paper presents an efficient alternative for optimizing neural…

Machine Learning · Computer Science 2023-11-14 Jake Ryland Williams , Haoran Zhao

The Forward-Forward algorithm has evolved in machine learning research, tackling more complex tasks that mimic real-life applications. In the last years, it has been improved by several techniques to perform better than its original…

Machine Learning · Computer Science 2025-06-26 Mauricio Ortiz Torres , Markus Lange , Arne P. Raulf