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Detecting text generated by large language models (LLMs) is crucial but challenging. Existing detectors depend on impractical assumptions, such as white-box settings, or solely rely on text-level features, leading to imprecise detection…

Artificial Intelligence · Computer Science 2026-02-17 Xuecong Li , Xiaohong Li , Qiang Hu , Yao Zhang , Junjie Wang

Watermark algorithms for large language models (LLMs) have achieved extremely high accuracy in detecting text generated by LLMs. Such algorithms typically involve adding extra watermark logits to the LLM's logits at each generation step.…

Cryptography and Security · Computer Science 2024-05-21 Aiwei Liu , Leyi Pan , Xuming Hu , Shiao Meng , Lijie Wen

As large language models (LLMs) become integral to applications such as question answering and content creation, reliable content attribution has become increasingly important. Watermarking is a promising approach, but most existing methods…

Cryptography and Security · Computer Science 2026-05-11 Ya Jiang , Massieh Kordi Boroujeny , Surender Suresh Kumar , Kai Zeng

The strong general capabilities of Large Language Models (LLMs) bring potential ethical risks if they are unrestrictedly accessible to malicious users. Token-level watermarking inserts watermarks in the generated texts by altering the token…

Computation and Language · Computer Science 2023-11-17 Yuhang Li , Yihan Wang , Zhouxing Shi , Cho-Jui Hsieh

The growing use of large language models (LLMs) for sensitive applications has highlighted the need for effective watermarking techniques to ensure the provenance and accountability of AI-generated text. However, most existing watermarking…

Computation and Language · Computer Science 2026-04-07 Yepeng Liu , Xuandong Zhao , Christopher Kruegel , Dawn Song , Yuheng Bu

As artificial intelligence surpasses human capabilities in text generation, the necessity to authenticate the origins of AI-generated content has become paramount. Unbiased watermarks offer a powerful solution by embedding statistical…

Computation and Language · Computer Science 2025-08-07 Ruibo Chen , Yihan Wu , Junfeng Guo , Heng Huang

Recently, text watermarking algorithms for large language models (LLMs) have been proposed to mitigate the potential harms of text generated by LLMs, including fake news and copyright issues. However, current watermark detection algorithms…

Computation and Language · Computer Science 2024-05-28 Aiwei Liu , Leyi Pan , Xuming Hu , Shu'ang Li , Lijie Wen , Irwin King , Philip S. Yu

Watermarking has emerged as a pivotal solution for content traceability and intellectual property protection in Large Vision-Language Models (LVLMs). However, vision-agnostic watermarks may introduce visually irrelevant tokens and disrupt…

Computer Vision and Pattern Recognition · Computer Science 2026-02-11 Yue Li , Xin Yi , Dongsheng Shi , Yongyi Cui , Gerard de Melo , Linlin Wang

Watermarking has become a key technique for proprietary language models, enabling the distinction between AI-generated and human-written text. However, in many real-world scenarios, LLM-generated content may undergo post-generation edits,…

Machine Learning · Computer Science 2025-10-03 Liyan Xie , Muhammad Siddeek , Mohamed Seif , Andrea J. Goldsmith , Mengdi Wang

Data watermarking in language models injects traceable signals, such as specific token sequences or stylistic patterns, into copyrighted text, allowing copyright holders to track and verify training data ownership. Previous data…

Cryptography and Security · Computer Science 2025-07-29 Xinyue Cui , Johnny Tian-Zheng Wei , Swabha Swayamdipta , Robin Jia

The recent advancements in large language models (LLMs) have sparked a growing apprehension regarding the potential misuse. One approach to mitigating this risk is to incorporate watermarking techniques into LLMs, allowing for the tracking…

Cryptography and Security · Computer Science 2023-10-19 Zhengmian Hu , Lichang Chen , Xidong Wu , Yihan Wu , Hongyang Zhang , Heng Huang

We consider the emerging problem of identifying the presence and use of watermarking schemes in widely used, publicly hosted, closed source large language models (LLMs). We introduce a suite of baseline algorithms for identifying watermarks…

Machine Learning · Computer Science 2023-05-31 Leonard Tang , Gavin Uberti , Tom Shlomi

The rapid advancement of Large Language Models (LLMs) has ushered in an era where AI-generated text is increasingly indistinguishable from human-generated content. Detecting AI-generated text has become imperative to combat misinformation,…

Computation and Language · Computer Science 2024-06-12 Ye Zhang , Qian Leng , Mengran Zhu , Rui Ding , Yue Wu , Jintong Song , Yulu Gong

With the rapid advancement and extensive application of artificial intelligence technology, large language models (LLMs) are extensively used to enhance production, creativity, learning, and work efficiency across various domains. However,…

Cryptography and Security · Computer Science 2024-09-04 Yuqing Liang , Jiancheng Xiao , Wensheng Gan , Philip S. Yu

Watermarking is an important tool for promoting the responsible use of large language models (LLMs). Existing watermarks insert a signal into generated tokens that either flags LLM-generated text (zero-bit watermarking) or encodes more…

Machine Learning · Computer Science 2026-05-25 Atefeh Gilani , Sajani Vithana , Carol Xuan Long , Oliver Kosut , Lalitha Sankar , Flavio P. Calmon

Generated texts from large language models (LLMs) are remarkably close to high-quality human-authored text, raising concerns about their potential misuse in spreading false information and academic misconduct. Consequently, there is an…

Computation and Language · Computer Science 2023-11-06 Kangxi Wu , Liang Pang , Huawei Shen , Xueqi Cheng , Tat-Seng Chua

Large language models (LLMs) have advanced to a point that even humans have difficulty discerning whether a text was generated by another human, or by a computer. However, knowing whether a text was produced by human or artificial…

Computation and Language · Computer Science 2025-04-15 Kathleen C. Fraser , Hillary Dawkins , Svetlana Kiritchenko

Large language models (LLMs) memorize text from several sources of documents. In pretraining, LLM trains to maximize the likelihood of text but neither receives the source of the text nor memorizes the source. Accordingly, LLM can not…

Computation and Language · Computer Science 2024-07-19 Bumjin Park , Jaesik Choi

The ease of access to large language models (LLMs) has enabled a widespread of machine-generated texts, and now it is often hard to tell whether a piece of text was human-written or machine-generated. This raises concerns about potential…

With the application of vertical domain pre-trained language models (VPLMs) in specialized fields such as medical, finance, and law, model parameters and inference capabilities have become important digital assets. Achieving traceable…

Cryptography and Security · Computer Science 2026-05-05 Cong Kong , Xin Cheng , Zhaoxia Yin , Shuai Li , Jie Zhang , Weiming Zhang
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