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A ubiquitous task in processing electronic medical data is the assignment of standardized codes representing diagnoses and/or procedures to free-text documents such as medical reports. This is a difficult natural language processing task…

Medical coding translates professionally written medical reports into standardized codes, which is an essential part of medical information systems and health insurance reimbursement. Manual coding by trained human coders is time-consuming…

Computation and Language · Computer Science 2021-09-27 Wei Sun , Shaoxiong Ji , Erik Cambria , Pekka Marttinen

Healthcare providers usually record detailed notes of the clinical care delivered to each patient for clinical, research, and billing purposes. Due to the unstructured nature of these narratives, providers employ dedicated staff to assign…

Computation and Language · Computer Science 2022-08-03 Chufan Gao , Mononito Goswami , Jieshi Chen , Artur Dubrawski

Clinical coding is currently a labour-intensive, error-prone, but critical administrative process whereby hospital patient episodes are manually assigned codes by qualified staff from large, standardised taxonomic hierarchies of codes.…

Machine Learning · Computer Science 2023-02-28 Thomas Searle , Zina Ibrahim , Richard JB Dobson

Accurate clinical coding is essential for healthcare documentation, billing, and decision-making. While prior work shows that off-the-shelf LLMs struggle with this task, evaluations based on exact match metrics often overlook errors where…

Computation and Language · Computer Science 2025-10-10 Zhangdie Yuan , Han-Chin Shing , Mitch Strong , Chaitanya Shivade

Medical coding translates clinical documentation into standardized codes for billing, research, and public health, but manual coding is time-consuming and error-prone. Existing automation efforts rely on small datasets that poorly represent…

Automated medical coding, an essential task for healthcare operation and delivery, makes unstructured data manageable by predicting medical codes from clinical documents. Recent advances in deep learning and natural language processing have…

Computation and Language · Computer Science 2024-05-15 Shaoxiong Ji , Wei Sun , Xiaobo Li , Hang Dong , Ara Taalas , Yijia Zhang , Honghan Wu , Esa Pitkänen , Pekka Marttinen

Automatic International Classification of Diseases (ICD) coding aims to assign multiple ICD codes to a medical note with average length of 3,000+ tokens. This task is challenging due to a high-dimensional space of multi-label assignment…

Computation and Language · Computer Science 2022-10-14 Zhichao Yang , Shufan Wang , Bhanu Pratap Singh Rawat , Avijit Mitra , Hong Yu

This study aims to explore the implementation of Natural Language Processing (NLP) and machine learning (ML) techniques to automate the coding of medical letters with visualised explainability and light-weighted local computer settings.…

Computation and Language · Computer Science 2024-07-19 Jamie Glen , Lifeng Han , Paul Rayson , Goran Nenadic

Clinical coding is the task of transforming medical information in a patient's health records into structured codes so that they can be used for statistical analysis. This is a cognitive and time-consuming task that follows a standard…

Computation and Language · Computer Science 2022-10-11 Hang Dong , Matúš Falis , William Whiteley , Beatrice Alex , Joshua Matterson , Shaoxiong Ji , Jiaoyan Chen , Honghan Wu

Clinical notes are assigned ICD codes - sets of codes for diagnoses and procedures. In the recent years, predictive machine learning models have been built for automatic ICD coding. However, there is a lack of widely accepted benchmarks for…

Artificial Intelligence · Computer Science 2023-04-28 Thanh-Tung Nguyen , Viktor Schlegel , Abhinav Kashyap , Stefan Winkler , Shao-Syuan Huang , Jie-Jyun Liu , Chih-Jen Lin

Automatic ICD coding, the task of assigning disease and procedure codes to electronic medical records, is crucial for clinical documentation and billing. While existing methods primarily enhance model understanding of code hierarchies and…

Computation and Language · Computer Science 2025-11-11 Tuan-Dung Le , Shohreh Haddadan , Thanh Q. Thieu

Although the International Classification of Diseases (ICD) has been adopted worldwide, manually assigning ICD codes to clinical text is time-consuming, error-prone, and expensive, motivating the development of automated approaches. This…

Computation and Language · Computer Science 2024-02-06 Gonçalo Gomes , Isabel Coutinho , Bruno Martins

Human coders assign standardized medical codes to clinical documents generated during patients' hospitalization, which is error-prone and labor-intensive. Automated medical coding approaches have been developed using machine learning…

Computation and Language · Computer Science 2022-09-13 Wei Sun , Shaoxiong Ji , Erik Cambria , Pekka Marttinen

Prediction of medical codes from clinical notes is both a practical and essential need for every healthcare delivery organization within current medical systems. Automating annotation will save significant time and excessive effort spent by…

Computation and Language · Computer Science 2021-07-23 Byung-Hak Kim , Varun Ganapathi

Availability of diagnostic codes in Electronic Health Records (EHRs) is crucial for patient care as well as reimbursement purposes. However, entering them in the EHR is tedious, and some clinical codes may be overlooked. Given an…

Machine Learning · Computer Science 2023-05-10 Tsvetan R. Yordanov , Ameen Abu-Hanna , Anita CJ Ravelli , Iacopo Vagliano

Background and Objective: Code assignment is of paramount importance in many levels in modern hospitals, from ensuring accurate billing process to creating a valid record of patient care history. However, the coding process is tedious and…

Computation and Language · Computer Science 2019-10-03 Jinmiao Huang , Cesar Osorio , Luke Wicent Sy

Clinical diagnosis, which aims to assign diagnosis codes for a patient based on the clinical note, plays an essential role in clinical decision-making. Considering that manual diagnosis could be error-prone and time-consuming, many…

Computation and Language · Computer Science 2021-01-28 Yichao Du , Pengfei Luo , Xudong Hong , Tong Xu , Zhe Zhang , Chao Ren , Yi Zheng , Enhong Chen

Clinical coding is crucial for healthcare billing and data analysis. Manual clinical coding is labour-intensive and error-prone, which has motivated research towards full automation of the process. However, our analysis, based on US English…

Computation and Language · Computer Science 2025-06-19 Yidong Gan , Maciej Rybinski , Ben Hachey , Jonathan K. Kummerfeld

Clinical notes contain unstructured text provided by clinicians during patient encounters. These notes are usually accompanied by a sequence of diagnostic codes following the International Classification of Diseases (ICD). Correctly…

Machine Learning · Computer Science 2025-10-17 Mohammad Mansoori , Amira Soliman , Farzaneh Etminani
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