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Deep neural networks have gained momentum based on their accuracy, but their interpretability is often criticised. As a result, they are labelled as black boxes. In response, several methods have been proposed in the literature to explain…

Machine Learning · Computer Science 2022-07-05 Cosimo Izzo , Aldo Lipani , Ramin Okhrati , Francesca Medda

Because of their strong theoretical properties, Shapley values have become very popular as a way to explain predictions made by black box models. Unfortuately, most existing techniques to compute Shapley values are computationally very…

Machine Learning · Computer Science 2022-08-29 Arne Gevaert , Yvan Saeys

Shapley values have become a cornerstone of explainable AI, but they are computationally expensive to use, especially when features are dependent. Evaluating them requires approximating a large number of conditional expectations, either via…

Artificial Intelligence · Computer Science 2026-02-11 Lars Henry Berge Olsen , Dennis Christensen

The Shapley value---probably the most important normative payoff division scheme in coalitional games---has recently been advocated as a useful measure of centrality in networks. However, although this approach has a variety of real-world…

Computer Science and Game Theory · Computer Science 2014-02-05 Tomasz Pawel Michalak , Karthik V Aadithya , Piotr L. Szczepanski , Balaraman Ravindran , Nicholas R. Jennings

This chapter makes a review, in a complete methodological framework, of various global sensitivity analysis methods of model output. Numerous statistical and probabilistic tools (regression, smoothing, tests, statistical learning, Monte…

Statistics Theory · Mathematics 2014-04-10 Bertrand Iooss , Paul Lemaître

Explaining deep convolutional neural networks has been recently drawing increasing attention since it helps to understand the networks' internal operations and why they make certain decisions. Saliency maps, which emphasize salient regions…

Computer Vision and Pattern Recognition · Computer Science 2022-08-10 Quan Zheng , Ziwei Wang , Jie Zhou , Jiwen Lu

Pixel-level feature attributions are an important tool in eXplainable AI for Computer Vision (XCV), providing visual insights into how image features influence model predictions. The Owen formula for hierarchical Shapley values has been…

Computer Vision and Pattern Recognition · Computer Science 2026-03-26 Muhammad Rashid , Elvio G. Amparore , Enrico Ferrari , Damiano Verda

Explainable artificial intelligence (XAI) is essential for trustworthy machine learning (ML), particularly in high-stakes domains such as healthcare and finance. Shapley value (SV) methods provide a principled framework for feature…

Machine Learning · Statistics 2025-10-03 Wangxuan Fan , Siqi Li , Doudou Zhou , Yohei Okada , Chuan Hong , Molei Liu , Nan Liu

The estimation of variance-based importance measures (called Sobol' indices) of the input variables of a numerical model can require a large number of model evaluations. It turns to be unacceptable for high-dimensional model involving a…

Statistics Theory · Mathematics 2013-05-28 Matieyendou Lamboni , Bertrand Iooss , Anne-Laure Popelin , Fabrice Gamboa

Shapley value is a concept in cooperative game theory for measuring the contribution of each participant, which was named in honor of Lloyd Shapley. Shapley value has been recently applied in data marketplaces for compensation allocation…

Machine Learning · Computer Science 2020-03-24 Jinfei Liu

With the widespread use of sophisticated machine learning models in sensitive applications, understanding their decision-making has become an essential task. Models trained on tabular data have witnessed significant progress in explanations…

Machine Learning · Computer Science 2022-06-16 Aditya Lahiri , Kamran Alipour , Ehsan Adeli , Babak Salimi

Dimensionality reduction (DR) techniques have been consistently supporting high-dimensional data analysis in various applications. Besides the patterns uncovered by these techniques, the interpretation of DR results based on each feature's…

Machine Learning · Computer Science 2021-03-11 Wilson Estécio Marcílio Júnior , Danilo Medeiros Eler

We consider a global representation of a regression or classification function by decomposing it into the sum of main and interaction components of arbitrary order. We propose a new identification constraint that allows for the extraction…

Machine Learning · Computer Science 2023-02-24 Munir Hiabu , Joseph T. Meyer , Marvin N. Wright

Over the recent years, Shapley value (SV), a solution concept from cooperative game theory, has found numerous applications in data analytics (DA). This paper presents the first comprehensive study of SV used throughout the DA workflow,…

Databases · Computer Science 2025-07-09 Hong Lin , Shixin Wan , Zhongle Xie , Ke Chen , Meihui Zhang , Lidan Shou , Gang Chen

Changes in input distribution can induce shifts in the average predictions of machine learning models. Such prediction shifts may impact downstream business outcomes (e.g. a bank's loan approval rate), so understanding their causes can be…

Machine Learning · Computer Science 2026-04-14 Tom Bewley , Salim I. Amoukou , Emanuele Albini , Saumitra Mishra , Manuela Veloso

We consider the problem of active learning for global sensitivity analysis of expensive black-box functions. Our aim is to efficiently learn the importance of different input variables, e.g., in vehicle safety experimentation, we study the…

Machine Learning · Computer Science 2024-10-22 Syrine Belakaria , Benjamin Letham , Janardhan Rao Doppa , Barbara Engelhardt , Stefano Ermon , Eytan Bakshy

The Shapley value has become popular in the Explainable AI (XAI) literature, thanks, to a large extent, to a solid theoretical foundation, including four "favourable and fair" axioms for attribution in transferable utility games. The…

Machine Learning · Computer Science 2021-02-23 Daniel Fryer , Inga Strümke , Hien Nguyen

Interpretability of learning algorithms is crucial for applications involving critical decisions, and variable importance is one of the main interpretation tools. Shapley effects are now widely used to interpret both tree ensembles and…

Machine Learning · Statistics 2022-02-03 Clément Bénard , Gérard Biau , Sébastien da Veiga , Erwan Scornet

In the paradigm of decentralized learning, a group of agents collaborate to learn a global model using a distributed dataset without a central server; nevertheless, it is severely challenged by the heterogeneity of the data distribution…

Machine Learning · Computer Science 2026-01-14 Lina Wang , Yunsheng Yuan , Feng Li , Lingjie Duan

Although Shapley values have been shown to be highly effective for identifying harmful training instances, dataset size and model complexity constraints limit the ability to apply Shapley-based data valuation to fine-tuning large…

Computation and Language · Computer Science 2023-06-21 Stephanie Schoch , Ritwick Mishra , Yangfeng Ji