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State-of-the-art backpropagation-free learning methods employ local error feedback to direct iterative optimisation via gradient descent. Here, we examine the more restrictive setting where retrograde communication from neuronal outputs is…

Machine Learning · Computer Science 2025-12-19 Robert O'Shea , Bipin Rajendran

The ubiquitous backpropagation algorithm requires sequential updates through the network introducing a locking problem. In addition, back-propagation relies on the transpose of forward weight matrices to compute updates, introducing a…

Machine Learning · Computer Science 2023-10-31 David Kappel , Khaleelulla Khan Nazeer , Cabrel Teguemne Fokam , Christian Mayr , Anand Subramoney

Backpropagation is the pivotal algorithm underpinning the success of artificial neural networks, yet it has critical limitations such as biologically implausible backward locking and global error propagation. To circumvent these…

Machine Learning · Computer Science 2025-09-11 James Gong , Raymond Luo , Emma Wang , Leon Ge , Bruce Li , Felix Marattukalam , Waleed Abdulla

Catastrophic forgetting remains a central challenge in continual learning (CL) with pre-trained models. While existing approaches typically freeze the backbone and fine-tune a small number of parameters to mitigate forgetting, they still…

Machine Learning · Computer Science 2025-09-03 Jiao Chen , Jiayi He , Fangfang Chen , Zuohong Lv , Jianhua Tang

Training a neural network using backpropagation algorithm requires passing error gradients sequentially through the network. The backward locking prevents us from updating network layers in parallel and fully leveraging the computing…

Machine Learning · Computer Science 2019-05-30 Zhouyuan Huo , Bin Gu , Heng Huang

The long-held assumption that backpropagation (BP) is essential for state-of-the-art performance is challenged by this work. We present rigorous, hardware-validated evidence that the Mono-Forward (MF) algorithm, a backpropagation-free…

Machine Learning · Computer Science 2025-11-04 Przemysław Spyra , Witold Dzwinel

The backpropagation algorithm remains the dominant and most successful method for training deep neural networks (DNNs). At the same time, training DNNs at scale comes at a significant computational cost and therefore a high carbon…

Machine Learning · Computer Science 2025-11-12 Sander Dalm , Joshua Offergeld , Nasir Ahmad , Marcel van Gerven

Forward-only learning algorithms have recently gained attention as alternatives to gradient backpropagation, replacing the backward step of this latter solver with an additional contrastive forward pass. Among these approaches, the…

Machine Learning · Computer Science 2024-09-12 Erik B. Terres-Escudero , Javier Del Ser , Pablo Garcia-Bringas

We propose a data-driven approach for deep convolutional neural network compression that achieves high accuracy with high throughput and low memory requirements. Current network compression methods either find a low-rank factorization of…

Computer Vision and Pattern Recognition · Computer Science 2019-03-13 Breton Minnehan , Andreas Savakis

Advances in neural computation have predominantly relied on the gradient backpropagation algorithm (BP). However, the recent shift towards non-stationary data modeling has highlighted the limitations of this heuristic, exposing that its…

Neural and Evolutionary Computing · Computer Science 2024-06-25 Erik B. Terres-Escudero , Javier Del Ser , Pablo García-Bringas

Backpropagation remains the dominant algorithm for training deep neural networks, but it incurs substantial memory overhead and relies on global error propagation, which is often regarded as biologically implausible. The Forward-Forward…

Machine Learning · Computer Science 2026-05-08 James Gong , Bruce Li , Waleed Abdulla

Iterative approximation methods using backpropagation enable the optimization of neural networks, but they remain computationally expensive, especially when used at scale. This paper presents an efficient alternative for optimizing neural…

Machine Learning · Computer Science 2023-11-14 Jake Ryland Williams , Haoran Zhao

Function regression/approximation is a fundamental application of machine learning. Neural networks (NNs) can be easily trained for function regression using a sufficient number of neurons and epochs. The forward-forward learning algorithm…

Machine Learning · Computer Science 2025-10-16 Shivam Padmani , Akshay Joshi

Training deep neural networks on large-scale datasets requires significant hardware resources whose costs (even on cloud platforms) put them out of reach of smaller organizations, groups, and individuals. Backpropagation, the workhorse for…

Machine Learning · Computer Science 2020-09-22 Alexander Ororbia , Ankur Mali , Daniel Kifer , C. Lee Giles

Despite the notable success of deep neural networks (DNNs) in solving complex tasks, the training process still remains considerable challenges. A primary obstacle is the substantial time required for training, particularly as high…

Machine Learning · Computer Science 2025-09-09 Viet Hoang Pham , Hyo-Sung Ahn

Deep neural networks trained with backpropagation have achieved outstanding performance in vision tasks but remain biologically implausible, computationally demanding, and difficult to interpret. The Forward-Forward (FF) algorithm offers a…

Computer Vision and Pattern Recognition · Computer Science 2026-05-26 Jie-En Yao , Hong-En Chen , C. -C. Jay Kuo

The forward-forward algorithm presents a new method of training neural networks by updating weights during an inference, performing parameter updates for each layer individually. This immediately reduces memory requirements during training…

Machine Learning · Computer Science 2023-06-28 Michael Hopwood

This paper introduces a new architectural framework, known as input fast-forwarding, that can enhance the performance of deep networks. The main idea is to incorporate a parallel path that sends representations of input values forward to…

Computer Vision and Pattern Recognition · Computer Science 2017-05-25 Ahmed Ibrahim , A. Lynn Abbott , Mohamed E. Hussein

Federated learning (FL) is a general principle for decentralized clients to train a server model collectively without sharing local data. FL is a promising framework with practical applications, but its standard training paradigm requires…

Machine Learning · Computer Science 2024-07-23 Haozhe Feng , Tianyu Pang , Chao Du , Wei Chen , Shuicheng Yan , Min Lin

Back-propagation (BP) is widely used learning algorithm for neural network optimization. However, BP requires enormous computation cost and is too slow to train in central processing unit (CPU). Therefore current neural network optimizaiton…

Machine Learning · Computer Science 2023-08-22 Ryoungwoo Jang