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While reinforcement learning (RL) algorithms have been successfully applied across numerous sequential decision-making problems, their generalization to unforeseen testing environments remains a significant concern. In this paper, we study…

Machine Learning · Computer Science 2024-04-11 Linas Nasvytis , Kai Sandbrink , Jakob Foerster , Tim Franzmeyer , Christian Schroeder de Witt

Detecting out-of-distribution (OOD) inputs is a principal task for ensuring the safety of deploying deep-neural-network classifiers in open-set scenarios. OOD samples can be drawn from arbitrary distributions and exhibit deviations from…

Computer Vision and Pattern Recognition · Computer Science 2024-09-11 Choubo Ding , Guansong Pang

Applying machine learning to increasingly high-dimensional problems with sparse or biased training data increases the risk that a model is used on inputs outside its training domain. For such out-of-distribution (OOD) inputs, the model can…

Machine Learning · Computer Science 2025-03-10 Juniper Tyree , Andreas Rupp , Petri S. Clusius , Michael H. Boy

We introduce powerful ideas from Hyperdimensional Computing into the challenging field of Out-of-Distribution (OOD) detection. In contrast to most existing work that performs OOD detection based on only a single layer of a neural network,…

Computer Vision and Pattern Recognition · Computer Science 2022-08-31 Samuel Wilson , Tobias Fischer , Niko Sünderhauf , Feras Dayoub

Out-of-distribution (OOD) detection is critical for ensuring the reliability of deep learning systems, particularly in safety-critical applications. Likelihood-based deep generative models have historically faced criticism for their…

Machine Learning · Computer Science 2025-07-11 Yifan Ding , Arturas Aleksandraus , Amirhossein Ahmadian , Jonas Unger , Fredrik Lindsten , Gabriel Eilertsen

\noindent Out-of-distribution (OOD) detection is essential for the safe deployment of machine learning models. Extensive work has focused on devising various scoring functions for detecting OOD samples, while only a few studies focus on…

Computer Vision and Pattern Recognition · Computer Science 2026-02-25 Yifan Ding , Xixi Liu , Jonas Unger , Gabriel Eilertsen

Detecting out-of-distribution (OOD) samples is an essential requirement for the deployment of machine learning systems in the real world. Until now, research on energy-based OOD detectors has focused on the softmax confidence score from a…

Machine Learning · Computer Science 2021-02-18 Francesco Tonin , Arun Pandey , Panagiotis Patrinos , Johan A. K. Suykens

Out-of-distribution (OOD) detection is an important topic for real-world machine learning systems, but settings with limited in-distribution samples have been underexplored. Such few-shot OOD settings are challenging, as models have scarce…

Machine Learning · Computer Science 2023-12-27 Nikhil Mehta , Kevin J Liang , Jing Huang , Fu-Jen Chu , Li Yin , Tal Hassner

The superior performance of object detectors is often established under the condition that the test samples are in the same distribution as the training data. However, in many practical applications, out-of-distribution (OOD) instances are…

Computer Vision and Pattern Recognition · Computer Science 2023-10-31 Tianhao Zhang , Shenglin Wang , Nidhal Bouaynaya , Radu Calinescu , Lyudmila Mihaylova

Out-of-distribution (OOD) detection is essential to improve the reliability of machine learning models by detecting samples that do not belong to the training distribution. Detecting OOD samples effectively in certain tasks can pose a…

Computer Vision and Pattern Recognition · Computer Science 2023-11-02 Divyanshu Mishra , He Zhao , Pramit Saha , Aris T. Papageorghiou , J. Alison Noble

Out-of-distribution (OOD) detection aims to detect "unknown" data whose labels have not been seen during the in-distribution (ID) training process. Recent progress in representation learning gives rise to distance-based OOD detection that…

Computer Vision and Pattern Recognition · Computer Science 2023-08-22 Ji Zhang , Lianli Gao , Bingguang Hao , Hao Huang , Jingkuan Song , Hengtao Shen

Deep Learning models perform unreliably when the data comes from a distribution different from the training one. In critical applications such as medical imaging, out-of-distribution (OOD) detection methods help to identify such data…

Image and Video Processing · Electrical Eng. & Systems 2023-06-26 Anton Vasiliuk , Daria Frolova , Mikhail Belyaev , Boris Shirokikh

Out-of-distribution (OOD) detection is crucial for the reliable deployment of machine learning models in real-world scenarios, enabling the identification of unknown samples or objects. A prominent approach to enhance OOD detection…

Machine Learning · Statistics 2025-08-05 Heng Gao , Jun Li

Deep neural networks are increasingly used in a wide range of technologies and services, but remain highly susceptible to out-of-distribution (OOD) samples, that is, drawn from a different distribution than the original training set. A…

Machine Learning · Computer Science 2024-04-17 Pietro Recalcati , Fabio Garcea , Luca Piano , Fabrizio Lamberti , Lia Morra

Understanding the decision-making and trusting the reliability of Deep Machine Learning Models is crucial for adopting such methods to safety-relevant applications. We extend self-explainable Prototypical Variational models with…

Machine Learning · Computer Science 2025-06-18 Conrad Orglmeister , Erik Bochinski , Volker Eiselein , Elvira Fleig

Out-of-distribution (OOD) detection is essential to prevent anomalous inputs from causing a model to fail during deployment. While improved OOD detection methods have emerged, they often rely on the final layer outputs and require a full…

Computer Vision and Pattern Recognition · Computer Science 2021-05-03 Ziqian Lin , Sreya Dutta Roy , Yixuan Li

Out-of-distribution (OOD) detection aims to identify test examples that do not belong to the training distribution and are thus unlikely to be predicted reliably. Despite a plethora of existing works, most of them focused only on the…

Machine Learning · Computer Science 2023-11-07 Reza Averly , Wei-Lun Chao

Neural networks are known to produce over-confident predictions on input images, even when these images are out-of-distribution (OOD) samples. This limits the applications of neural network models in real-world scenarios, where OOD samples…

Computer Vision and Pattern Recognition · Computer Science 2022-07-19 Ke Fan , Yikai Wang , Qian Yu , Da Li , Yanwei Fu

Reliable out-of-distribution (OOD) detection is fundamental to implementing safer modern machine learning (ML) systems. In this paper, we introduce Igeood, an effective method for detecting OOD samples. Igeood applies to any pre-trained…

Machine Learning · Statistics 2022-03-16 Eduardo Dadalto Camara Gomes , Florence Alberge , Pierre Duhamel , Pablo Piantanida

Deep neural networks achieve superior performance in challenging tasks such as image classification. However, deep classifiers tend to incorrectly classify out-of-distribution (OOD) inputs, which are inputs that do not belong to the…

Machine Learning · Computer Science 2019-10-24 Vahdat Abdelzad , Krzysztof Czarnecki , Rick Salay , Taylor Denounden , Sachin Vernekar , Buu Phan
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