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Off-Policy reinforcement learning has been a driving force for the state-of-the-art conversational AIs leading to more natural humanagent interactions and improving the user satisfaction for goal-oriented agents. However, in large-scale…

Artificial Intelligence · Computer Science 2023-05-19 Sarthak Ahuja , Mohammad Kachuee , Fateme Sheikholeslami , Weiqing Liu , Jaeyoung Do

Off-policy evaluation provides an essential tool for evaluating the effects of different policies or treatments using only observed data. When applied to high-stakes scenarios such as medical diagnosis or financial decision-making, it is…

Machine Learning · Computer Science 2020-10-30 Ziyang Tang , Yihao Feng , Na Zhang , Jian Peng , Qiang Liu

The beneficial effects of treatments vary across individuals in most studies. Treatment heterogeneity motivates practitioners to search for the optimal policy based on personal characteristics. A long-standing common practice in policy…

Statistics Theory · Mathematics 2025-01-06 Xuqiao Li , Ying Yan

Off-policy learning and evaluation leverage logged bandit feedback datasets, which contain context, action, propensity score, and feedback for each data point. These scenarios face significant challenges due to high variance and poor…

Machine Learning · Computer Science 2025-06-10 Armin Behnamnia , Gholamali Aminian , Alireza Aghaei , Chengchun Shi , Vincent Y. F. Tan , Hamid R. Rabiee

This paper studies the evaluation of policies that recommend an ordered set of items (e.g., a ranking) based on some context---a common scenario in web search, ads, and recommendation. We build on techniques from combinatorial bandits to…

Machine Learning · Computer Science 2017-11-08 Adith Swaminathan , Akshay Krishnamurthy , Alekh Agarwal , Miroslav Dudík , John Langford , Damien Jose , Imed Zitouni

The off-policy paradigm casts recommendation as a counterfactual decision-making task, allowing practitioners to unbiasedly estimate online metrics using offline data. This leads to effective evaluation metrics, as well as learning…

Machine Learning · Computer Science 2024-09-17 Olivier Jeunen , Aleksei Ustimenko

We consider the problem of evaluating the performance of a decision policy using past observational data. The outcome of a policy is measured in terms of a loss (aka. disutility or negative reward) and the main problem is making valid…

Machine Learning · Statistics 2023-07-03 Sofia Ek , Dave Zachariah , Fredrik D. Johansson , Petre Stoica

Improving the sample efficiency of reinforcement learning algorithms requires effective exploration. Following the principle of $\textit{optimism in the face of uncertainty}$ (OFU), we train a separate exploration policy to maximize the…

Machine Learning · Computer Science 2022-11-23 Jiachen Li , Shuo Cheng , Zhenyu Liao , Huayan Wang , William Yang Wang , Qinxun Bai

Personalized pricing is a business strategy to charge different prices to individual consumers based on their characteristics and behaviors. It has become common practice in many industries nowadays due to the availability of a growing…

Computers and Society · Computer Science 2022-02-22 Renzhe Xu , Xingxuan Zhang , Peng Cui , Bo Li , Zheyan Shen , Jiazheng Xu

Off-policy evaluation (OPE) holds the promise of being able to leverage large, offline datasets for both evaluating and selecting complex policies for decision making. The ability to learn offline is particularly important in many…

We study off-policy learning (OPL) in contextual bandits, which plays a key role in a wide range of real-world applications such as recommendation systems and online advertising. Typical OPL in contextual bandits assumes an unconstrained…

Machine Learning · Computer Science 2026-05-19 Koichi Tanaka , Ren Kishimoto , Bushun Kawagishi , Yusuke Narita , Yasuo Yamamoto , Nobuyuki Shimizu , Yuta Saito

In lending, where prices are specific to both customers and products, having a well-functioning personalized pricing policy in place is essential to effective business making. Typically, such a policy must be derived from observational…

Machine Learning · Computer Science 2023-09-08 Christopher Bockel-Rickermann , Sam Verboven , Tim Verdonck , Wouter Verbeke

Off-policy evaluation estimates how a target policy would perform using data collected by a different behavior policy, which is crucial when online testing is costly or risky, such as in recommendation or healthcare. Standard importance…

Machine Learning · Computer Science 2026-05-29 Ziwen Xie , Shaowen Xiang , Hongyu He , Dianbo Liu

Off-policy evaluation is a key component of reinforcement learning which evaluates a target policy with offline data collected from behavior policies. It is a crucial step towards safe reinforcement learning and has been used in…

Machine Learning · Computer Science 2020-12-01 Jinlin Lai , Lixin Zou , Jiaxing Song

Off-policy evaluation (OPE) and off-policy learning (OPL) are foundational for decision-making in offline contextual bandits. Recent advances in OPL primarily optimize OPE estimators with improved statistical properties, assuming that…

Machine Learning · Statistics 2025-09-04 Imad Aouali , Otmane Sakhi

A critical need for industrial recommender systems is the ability to evaluate recommendation policies offline, before deploying them to production. Unfortunately, widely used off-policy evaluation methods either make strong assumptions…

Machine Learning · Computer Science 2022-10-19 Alexander Buchholz , Ben London , Giuseppe di Benedetto , Thorsten Joachims

Many sequential decision-making systems leverage data collected using prior policies to propose a new policy. For critical applications, it is important that high-confidence guarantees on the new policy's behavior are provided before…

Machine Learning · Computer Science 2021-01-26 Yash Chandak , Shiv Shankar , Philip S. Thomas

Off-policy policy evaluation methods for sequential decision making can be used to help identify if a proposed decision policy is better than a current baseline policy. However, a new decision policy may be better than a baseline policy for…

Machine Learning · Computer Science 2021-11-30 Ramtin Keramati , Omer Gottesman , Leo Anthony Celi , Finale Doshi-Velez , Emma Brunskill

We discuss the thought-provoking new objective functions for policy learning that were proposed in "More efficient policy learning via optimal retargeting" by Nathan Kallus and "Learning optimal distributionally robust individualized…

Machine Learning · Statistics 2020-10-13 Sijia Li , Xiudi Li , Alex Luedtke

The Off-Policy Evaluation (OPE) problem consists of evaluating the performance of counterfactual policies with data collected by another one. To solve the OPE problem, we resort to estimators, which aim to estimate in the most accurate way…

Machine Learning · Computer Science 2024-11-12 Nicolò Felicioni , Michael Benigni , Maurizio Ferrari Dacrema