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Training NLP systems typically assumes access to annotated data that has a single human label per example. Given imperfect labeling from annotators and inherent ambiguity of language, we hypothesize that single label is not sufficient to…

Computation and Language · Computer Science 2021-09-14 Shujian Zhang , Chengyue Gong , Eunsol Choi

Social media platforms provide users the freedom of expression and a medium to exchange information and express diverse opinions. Unfortunately, this has also resulted in the growth of abusive content with the purpose of discriminating…

Computation and Language · Computer Science 2021-07-01 Sohail Akhtar , Valerio Basile , Viviana Patti

Data annotation, the practice of assigning descriptive labels to raw data, is pivotal in optimizing the performance of machine learning models. However, it is a resource-intensive process susceptible to biases introduced by annotators. The…

Human label variation (Plank 2022), or annotation disagreement, exists in many natural language processing (NLP) tasks. To be robust and trusted, NLP models need to identify such variation and be able to explain it. To this end, we created…

Computation and Language · Computer Science 2023-04-26 Nan-Jiang Jiang , Chenhao Tan , Marie-Catherine de Marneffe

We present the results of our system for the CoMeDi Shared Task, which predicts majority votes (Subtask 1) and annotator disagreements (Subtask 2). Our approach combines model ensemble strategies with MLP-based and threshold-based methods…

Computation and Language · Computer Science 2024-12-31 Zhu Liu , Zhen Hu , Ying Liu

Recent work has explored the use of personal information in the form of persona sentences or self-disclosures to improve modeling of individual characteristics and prediction of annotator labels for subjective tasks. The volume of personal…

Computation and Language · Computer Science 2026-01-27 Kieran Henderson , Kian Omoomi , Vasudha Varadarajan , Allison Lahnala , Charles Welch

Despite the subjective nature of many NLP tasks, most NLU evaluations have focused on using the majority label with presumably high agreement as the ground truth. Less attention has been paid to the distribution of human opinions. We…

Computation and Language · Computer Science 2020-10-12 Yixin Nie , Xiang Zhou , Mohit Bansal

Do LLMs align with human perceptions of safety? We study this question via annotation alignment, the extent to which LLMs and humans agree when annotating the safety of user-chatbot conversations. We leverage the recent DICES dataset (Aroyo…

Computation and Language · Computer Science 2024-10-08 Rajiv Movva , Pang Wei Koh , Emma Pierson

For machine learning datasets to accurately represent diverse opinions in a population, they must preserve variation in data labels while filtering out spam or low-quality responses. How can we balance annotator reliability and…

Computation and Language · Computer Science 2025-11-07 Eve Fleisig , Matthias Orlikowski , Philipp Cimiano , Dan Klein

Many annotation tasks in natural language processing are highly subjective in that there can be different valid and justified perspectives on what is a proper label for a given example. This also applies to the judgment of argument quality,…

Computation and Language · Computer Science 2025-03-03 Philipp Heinisch , Matthias Orlikowski , Julia Romberg , Philipp Cimiano

Annotation pipelines in Natural Language Processing (NLP) commonly assume a single latent ground truth per instance and resolve disagreement through label aggregation. Perspectivist approaches challenge this view by treating disagreement as…

Computation and Language · Computer Science 2026-04-23 Olga Kellert , Sriya Kondury , Candice Koo , Nemika Tyagi , Steffen Eikenberry

Recent trends in natural language processing research and annotation tasks affirm a paradigm shift from the traditional reliance on a single ground truth to a focus on individual perspectives, particularly in subjective tasks. In scenarios…

Computation and Language · Computer Science 2024-04-18 Olufunke O. Sarumi , Béla Neuendorf , Joan Plepi , Lucie Flek , Jörg Schlötterer , Charles Welch

The process of gathering ground truth data through human annotation is a major bottleneck in the use of information extraction methods for populating the Semantic Web. Crowdsourcing-based approaches are gaining popularity in the attempt to…

Human-Computer Interaction · Computer Science 2022-09-21 Anca Dumitrache , Oana Inel , Benjamin Timmermans , Carlos Ortiz , Robert-Jan Sips , Lora Aroyo , Chris Welty

Many machine learning tasks -- particularly those in affective computing -- are inherently subjective. When asked to classify facial expressions or to rate an individual's attractiveness, humans may disagree with one another, and no single…

Machine Learning · Computer Science 2022-11-24 Aneesha Sampath , Victoria Lin , Louis-Philippe Morency

Label aggregation such as majority voting is commonly used to resolve annotator disagreement in dataset creation. However, this may disregard minority values and opinions. Recent studies indicate that learning from individual annotations…

Computation and Language · Computer Science 2023-10-24 Xinpeng Wang , Barbara Plank

Current annotation agreement metrics are not well-suited for inter-group analysis, are sensitive to group size imbalances and restricted to single-annotation settings. These restrictions render them insufficient for many subjective tasks…

Computation and Language · Computer Science 2026-02-09 Dimitris Tsirmpas , John Pavlopoulos

Prior studies have shown that distinguishing text generated by Large Language Models (LLMs) from human-written one is highly challenging for humans, and often no better than random guessing. To verify the generalizability of this finding…

Hate speech spreads widely online, harming individuals and communities, making automatic detection essential for large-scale moderation, yet detecting it remains difficult. Part of the challenge lies in subjectivity: what one person flags…

Computation and Language · Computer Science 2025-12-11 Paloma Piot , David Otero , Patricia Martín-Rodilla , Javier Parapar

Recommendation systems increasingly depend on massive human-labeled datasets; however, the human annotators hired to generate these labels increasingly come from homogeneous backgrounds. This poses an issue when downstream predictive models…

Human annotators frequently disagree on emotion labels, yet most evaluations of Large Language Model (LLM) emotion annotation collapse these judgments into a single gold standard, discarding the distributional information that disagreement…

Computation and Language · Computer Science 2026-05-04 Keito Inoshita , Xiaokang Zhou , Akira Kawai , Katsutoshi Yada
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