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We present a heuristic derivation of Born's rule and unitary transforms in Quantum Mechanics, from a simple set of axioms built upon a physical phenomenology of quantization. This approach naturally leads to the usual quantum formalism,…

Quantum Physics · Physics 2022-01-04 Alexia Auffeves , Philippe Grangier

A non-Hermitian operator $H$ defined in a Hilbert space with inner product $\langle\cdot|\cdot\rangle$ may serve as the Hamiltonian for a unitary quantum system, if it is $\eta$-pseudo-Hermitian for a metric operator (positive-definite…

Quantum Physics · Physics 2020-06-05 Ali Mostafazadeh

Studies have shown that the Hilbert spaces of non-Hermitian systems require nontrivial metrics. Here, we demonstrate how evolution dimensions, in addition to time, can emerge naturally from a geometric formalism. Specifically, in this…

Quantum Physics · Physics 2024-03-13 Chia-Yi Ju , Adam Miranowicz , Yueh-Nan Chen , Guang-Yin Chen , Franco Nori

A finite dimensional system with a quadratic Hamiltonian constraint is Dirac quantized in holomorphic, antiholomorphic and mixed representations. A unique inner product is found by imposing Hermitian conjugacy relations on an operator…

General Relativity and Quantum Cosmology · Physics 2010-11-01 Jorma Louko

The equivalence between the Schr\"odinger and Heisenberg representations is a cornerstone of quantum mechanics. However, this relationship remains unclear in the non-Hermitian regime, particularly when the Hamiltonian is time-dependent. In…

Quantum Physics · Physics 2025-11-18 Chia-Yi Ju , Adam Miranowicz , Jacob Barnett , Guang-Yin Chen , Franco Nori

Models of PT symmetric quantum mechanics provide examples of biorthogonal quantum systems. The latter incorporporate all the structure of PT symmetric models, and allow for generalizations, especially in situations where the PT construction…

Quantum Physics · Physics 2008-11-26 Thomas Curtright , Luca Mezincescu

A deformation of Heisenberg algebra induces among other consequences a loss of Hermiticity of some operators that generate this algebra. Therefore, these operators are not Hermitian, nor is the Hamiltonian operator built from them. In the…

Mathematical Physics · Physics 2026-02-18 Latévi M. Lawson , Ibrahim Nonkané , Kinvi Kangni

A series of recent papers ``Faster than Hermitian Quantum Mechanics'' and related articles made a point of the possibility of a non-Hermitian, but PT-symmetric, operator to play the role of a Hamiltonian. In particular, they show that with…

Quantum Physics · Physics 2008-04-15 Mark J. Everitt , Shaaban Khalil , Alexandre M. Zagoskin

We propose an exercise in which one attempts to deduce the formalism of quantum mechanics solely from phenomenological observations. The only assumed inputs are the multi-time probability distributions estimated from the results of…

The current applications of non-Hermitian but ${\cal PT}-$symmetric Hamiltonians $H$ cover several, mutually not too closely connected subdomains of quantum physics. Mathematically, the split between the open and closed systems can be…

Quantum Physics · Physics 2021-10-29 Miloslav Znojil

A new version of the change of the "phase" (i.e., of the set of observable characteristics) of a quantum system is proposed. In a general scenario the evolution is assumed generated, before the phase transition, by some standard Hermitian…

Quantum Physics · Physics 2018-11-07 Miloslav Znojil

The relevance in Physics of non-Hermitian operators with real eigenvalues is being widely recognized not only in quantum mechanics but also in other areas, such as quantum optics, quantum fluid dynamics and quantum field theory. %stochastic…

Quantum Physics · Physics 2020-04-16 Natália Bebiano , João da Providência , S. Nishiyama , João P. da Providência

Rarely noted paradoxes and their resolution lead to non-Hermitian behaviors due to boundary terms, even for closed systems and with real potentials. The role played by these non-Hermiticities on quantum mechanical uncertainty relations is…

General Physics · Physics 2021-10-05 K. Moulopoulos

Non-Hermiticity plays a fundamental role in open quantum systems and describes a wide variety of effects of interactions with environments, including quantum measurement. However, understanding its consequences in strongly interacting…

Quantum Physics · Physics 2026-02-10 Hiroyuki Tajima , Masaya Nakagawa , Haozhao Liang , Masahito Ueda

We present a set of necessary conditions for the existence of a biorthonormal basis composed of eigenvectors of non-Hermitian operators. As an illustration, we examine these conditions in the case of normal operators. We also provide a…

Quantum Physics · Physics 2007-05-23 Toshiaki Tanaka

Quantum mechanics describes seemingly paradoxical relations between the outcomes of measurements that cannot be performed jointly. In Hilbert space, the outcomes of such incompatible measurements are represented by non-orthogonal states. In…

Quantum Physics · Physics 2023-03-06 Ming Ji , Holger F. Hofmann

Quasi-Hermitian quantum systems, including $\mathcal{PT}$-symmetric ones, can be mapped to equivalent Hermitian systems via a similarity transformation that redefines the inner product with a positive-definite metric operator. Although an…

Quantum Physics · Physics 2026-05-12 Ming-Zhang Wang , Xu-Yang Hou , Hao Guo

Information on quantum systems can be obtained only when they are open (or opened) in relation to a certain environment. As a matter of fact, realistic open quantum systems appear in very different shape. We sketch the theoretical…

Quantum Physics · Physics 2017-09-08 Ingrid Rotter

The non-Hermitian formalism is used at present in many papers for the description of open quantum systems. A special language developed in this field of physics which makes it difficult for many physicists to follow and to understand the…

Quantum Physics · Physics 2018-12-11 Hichem Eleuch , Ingrid Rotter

In biorthogonal quantum mechanics, the eigenvectors of a quasi-Hermitian operator and those of its adjoint are biorthogonal and complete and the probability for a transition from a quantum state to any one of these eigenvectors is positive…

Quantum Physics · Physics 2016-06-16 Margaret Hawton , Vincent Debierre