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When training deep neural networks for classification tasks, an intriguing empirical phenomenon has been widely observed in the last-layer classifiers and features, where (i) the class means and the last-layer classifiers all collapse to…

Machine Learning · Computer Science 2022-03-15 Jinxin Zhou , Xiao Li , Tianyu Ding , Chong You , Qing Qu , Zhihui Zhu

The recently discovered Neural Collapse (NC) phenomenon occurs pervasively in today's deep net training paradigm of driving cross-entropy (CE) loss towards zero. During NC, last-layer features collapse to their class-means, both classifiers…

Machine Learning · Computer Science 2022-05-11 X. Y. Han , Vardan Papyan , David L. Donoho

Modern deep neural networks have achieved impressive performance on tasks from image classification to natural language processing. Surprisingly, these complex systems with massive amounts of parameters exhibit the same structural…

Machine Learning · Computer Science 2023-06-21 Hien Dang , Tho Tran , Stanley Osher , Hung Tran-The , Nhat Ho , Tan Nguyen

We provide the first global optimization landscape analysis of $Neural\;Collapse$ -- an intriguing empirical phenomenon that arises in the last-layer classifiers and features of neural networks during the terminal phase of training. As…

Machine Learning · Computer Science 2021-05-07 Zhihui Zhu , Tianyu Ding , Jinxin Zhou , Xiao Li , Chong You , Jeremias Sulam , Qing Qu

Modern deep neural networks for classification usually jointly learn a backbone for representation and a linear classifier to output the logit of each class. A recent study has shown a phenomenon called neural collapse that the within-class…

Machine Learning · Computer Science 2022-10-13 Yibo Yang , Shixiang Chen , Xiangtai Li , Liang Xie , Zhouchen Lin , Dacheng Tao

The current paradigm of training deep neural networks for classification tasks includes minimizing the empirical risk that pushes the training loss value towards zero, even after the training error has been vanished. In this terminal phase…

Machine Learning · Computer Science 2024-06-07 Hien Dang , Tho Tran , Tan Nguyen , Nhat Ho

When training classification models, it expects that the learned features are compact within classes, and can well separate different classes. As the dominant loss function for training classification models, minimizing cross-entropy (CE)…

Machine Learning · Computer Science 2025-05-12 Qiufu Li , Huibin Xiao , Linlin Shen

Neural networks are trained by minimizing a loss function that defines the discrepancy between the predicted model output and the target value. The selection of the loss function is crucial to achieve task-specific behaviour and highly…

Computer Vision and Pattern Recognition · Computer Science 2024-04-22 Shakhnaz Akhmedova , Nils Körber

Neural collapse (NC) and its multi-layer variant, deep neural collapse (DNC), describe a structured geometry that occurs in the features and weights of trained deep networks. Recent theoretical work by Sukenik et al. using a deep…

Machine Learning · Computer Science 2025-10-07 Connall Garrod , Jonathan P. Keating

Supervised classification has a theoretical optimum, Neural Collapse (NC), yet neither of its two dominant paradigms reaches it in practice. Cross entropy (CE) leaves radial degrees of freedom unconstrained and converges to a degenerate…

Machine Learning · Computer Science 2026-05-22 Panagiotis Koromilas , Theodoros Giannakopoulos , Mihalis A. Nicolaou , Yannis Panagakis

One common loss function in neural network classification tasks is Categorical Cross Entropy (CCE), which punishes all misclassifications equally. However, classes often have an inherent structure. For instance, classifying an image of a…

Machine Learning · Computer Science 2020-03-09 Konstantin Kobs , Michael Steininger , Albin Zehe , Florian Lautenschlager , Andreas Hotho

We study deep neural networks for the multi-label classification (MLab) task through the lens of neural collapse (NC). Previous works have been restricted to the multi-class classification setting and discovered a prevalent NC phenomenon…

Machine Learning · Computer Science 2024-06-21 Pengyu Li , Xiao Li , Yutong Wang , Qing Qu

The empirical emergence of neural collapse -- a surprising symmetry in the feature representations of the training data in the penultimate layer of deep neural networks -- has spurred a line of theoretical research aimed at its…

Machine Learning · Computer Science 2025-05-22 Peter Súkeník , Christoph H. Lampert , Marco Mondelli

Recent years have witnessed the huge success of deep neural networks (DNNs) in various tasks of computer vision and text processing. Interestingly, these DNNs with massive number of parameters share similar structural properties on their…

Machine Learning · Statistics 2023-10-26 Wanli Hong , Shuyang Ling

The loss function is a key component in deep learning models. A commonly used loss function for classification is the cross entropy loss, which is a simple yet effective application of information theory for classification problems. Based…

Computer Vision and Pattern Recognition · Computer Science 2020-10-13 Zeyu Song , Dongliang Chang , Zhanyu Ma , Xiaoxu Li , Zheng-Hua Tan

The loss function used to train a neural network is strongly connected to its output layer from a statistical point of view. This technical report analyzes common activation functions for a neural network output layer, like linear, sigmoid,…

Machine Learning · Computer Science 2025-11-10 Fernando Berzal

The modern strategy for training deep neural networks for classification tasks includes optimizing the network's weights even after the training error vanishes to further push the training loss toward zero. Recently, a phenomenon termed…

Machine Learning · Computer Science 2022-10-13 Tom Tirer , Joan Bruna

Deep neural networks are currently among the most commonly used classifiers. Despite easily achieving very good performance, one of the best selling points of these models is their modular design - one can conveniently adapt their…

Machine Learning · Computer Science 2017-02-21 Katarzyna Janocha , Wojciech Marian Czarnecki

Recently, deep learning-based algorithms are widely adopted due to the advantage of being able to establish anomaly detection models without or with minimal domain knowledge of the task. Instead, to train the artificial neural network more…

Machine Learning · Computer Science 2023-04-17 YeongHyeon Park

Most Neural Networks (NNs) for classification are trained using Cross-Entropy as a loss function. This approach requires the model to have an explicit classification layer. However, there exist alternative approaches, such as Contrastive…

Machine Learning · Computer Science 2026-04-27 Leonardo Arrighi , Julia Eva Belloni , Aurélie Gallet , Ivan Gentile , Matteo Lippi , Marco Zullich
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