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As machine learning (ML) models become more widely deployed in high-stakes applications, counterfactual explanations have emerged as key tools for providing actionable model explanations in practice. Despite the growing popularity of…

Machine Learning · Computer Science 2022-12-16 Martin Pawelczyk , Chirag Agarwal , Shalmali Joshi , Sohini Upadhyay , Himabindu Lakkaraju

As data-driven predictive models are increasingly used to inform decisions, it has been argued that decision makers should provide explanations that help individuals understand what would have to change for these decisions to be beneficial…

Machine Learning · Computer Science 2020-10-15 Stratis Tsirtsis , Manuel Gomez-Rodriguez

Counterfactual explanations (CEs) are a powerful means for understanding how decisions made by algorithms can be changed. Researchers have proposed a number of desiderata that CEs should meet to be practically useful, such as requiring…

Machine Learning · Computer Science 2022-09-26 Marco Virgolin , Saverio Fracaros

Reinforcement Learning (RL) has shown great promise in domains like healthcare and robotics but often struggles with adoption due to its lack of interpretability. Counterfactual explanations, which address "what if" scenarios, provide a…

Machine Learning · Computer Science 2025-05-20 Shuyang Dong , Shangtong Zhang , Lu Feng

Counterfactual Explanations (CEs) have received increasing interest as a major methodology for explaining neural network classifiers. Usually, CEs for an input-output pair are defined as data points with minimum distance to the input that…

Machine Learning · Computer Science 2024-04-05 Junqi Jiang , Jianglin Lan , Francesco Leofante , Antonio Rago , Francesca Toni

The growing integration of machine learning (ML) and artificial intelligence (AI) models into high-stakes domains such as healthcare and scientific research calls for models that are not only accurate but also interpretable. Among the…

Machine Learning · Computer Science 2025-10-23 Zhuo Cao , Xuan Zhao , Lena Krieger , Hanno Scharr , Ira Assent

AI-driven outcomes can be challenging for end-users to understand. Explanations can address two key questions: "Why this outcome?" (factual) and "Why not another?" (counterfactual). While substantial efforts have been made to formalize…

Artificial Intelligence · Computer Science 2025-03-21 Suryani Lim , Henri Prade , Gilles Richard

Counterfactual explanations provide actionable insights to achieve desired outcomes by suggesting minimal changes to input features. However, existing methods rely on fixed sets of mutable features, which makes counterfactual explanations…

Machine Learning · Computer Science 2025-02-26 Stig Hellemans , Andres Algaba , Sam Verboven , Vincent Ginis

In the field of Explainable Artificial Intelligence (XAI), counterfactual examples explain to a user the predictions of a trained decision model by indicating the modifications to be made to the instance so as to change its associated…

Artificial Intelligence · Computer Science 2023-05-11 Thibault Laugel , Adulam Jeyasothy , Marie-Jeanne Lesot , Christophe Marsala , Marcin Detyniecki

Counterfactual explanations (CFEs) exemplify how to minimally modify a feature vector to achieve a different prediction for an instance. CFEs can enhance informational fairness and trustworthiness, and provide suggestions for users who…

Machine Learning · Computer Science 2023-09-12 Yongjie Wang , Hangwei Qian , Yongjie Liu , Wei Guo , Chunyan Miao

Post-hoc explanation methods for machine learning models have been widely used to support decision-making. One of the popular methods is Counterfactual Explanation (CE), also known as Actionable Recourse, which provides a user with a…

Machine Learning · Computer Science 2021-11-10 Kentaro Kanamori , Takuya Takagi , Ken Kobayashi , Yuichi Ike , Kento Uemura , Hiroki Arimura

Predictive models are being increasingly used to support consequential decision making at the individual level in contexts such as pretrial bail and loan approval. As a result, there is increasing social and legal pressure to provide…

Machine Learning · Computer Science 2020-03-02 Amir-Hossein Karimi , Gilles Barthe , Borja Balle , Isabel Valera

Optimization layers in deep neural networks have enjoyed a growing popularity in structured learning, improving the state of the art on a variety of applications. Yet, these pipelines lack interpretability since they are made of two opaque…

Machine Learning · Computer Science 2024-06-04 Germain Vivier-Ardisson , Alexandre Forel , Axel Parmentier , Thibaut Vidal

Counterfactual explanations have been widely studied in explainability, with a range of application dependent methods prominent in fairness, recourse and model understanding. The major shortcoming associated with these methods, however, is…

Machine Learning · Computer Science 2023-12-19 Dan Ley , Saumitra Mishra , Daniele Magazzeni

Counterfactual explanations (CFE) are being widely used to explain algorithmic decisions, especially in consequential decision-making contexts (e.g., loan approval or pretrial bail). In this context, CFEs aim to provide individuals affected…

Machine Learning · Computer Science 2021-02-09 Kiarash Mohammadi , Amir-Hossein Karimi , Gilles Barthe , Isabel Valera

Counterfactual explanations are a widely used approach in Explainable AI, offering actionable insights into decision-making by illustrating how small changes to input data can lead to different outcomes. Despite their importance, evaluating…

Human-Computer Interaction · Computer Science 2025-04-22 Marharyta Domnich , Rasmus Moorits Veski , Julius Välja , Kadi Tulver , Raul Vicente

Counterfactual explanations are emerging as an attractive option for providing recourse to individuals adversely impacted by algorithmic decisions. As they are deployed in critical applications (e.g. law enforcement, financial lending), it…

Machine Learning · Computer Science 2021-11-05 Dylan Slack , Sophie Hilgard , Himabindu Lakkaraju , Sameer Singh

Counterfactuals have been recognized as an effective approach to explain classifier decisions. Nevertheless, they have not yet been considered in the context of clustering. In this work, we propose the use of counterfactuals to explain…

Machine Learning · Computer Science 2025-01-20 Georgios Vardakas , Antonia Karra , Evaggelia Pitoura , Aristidis Likas

Counterfactual explanations (CE) aim to reveal how small input changes flip a model's prediction, yet many methods modify more features than necessary, reducing clarity and actionability. We introduce \emph{COLA}, a model- and…

Machine Learning · Computer Science 2026-03-02 Lei You , Yijun Bian , Lele Cao

Counterfactual explanation methods have recently received significant attention for explaining CNN-based image classifiers due to their ability to provide easily understandable explanations that align more closely with human reasoning.…

Computer Vision and Pattern Recognition · Computer Science 2025-01-22 Syed Ali Tariq , Tehseen Zia