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When using machine learning techniques in decision-making processes, the interpretability of the models is important. In the present paper, we adopted the Shapley additive explanation (SHAP), which is based on fair profit allocation among…

Machine Learning · Computer Science 2022-03-03 Yasunobu Nohara , Koutarou Matsumoto , Hidehisa Soejima , Naoki Nakashima

Shapley Values (SV) are widely used in explainable AI, but their estimation and interpretation can be challenging, leading to inaccurate inferences and explanations. As a starting point, we remind an invariance principle for SV and derive…

Machine Learning · Statistics 2023-06-01 Salim I. Amoukou , Nicolas J-B. Brunel , Tangi Salaün

Deep reinforcement learning (RL) has shown remarkable success in complex domains, however, the inherent black box nature of deep neural network policies raises significant challenges in understanding and trusting the decision-making…

Machine Learning · Computer Science 2025-01-20 Peilang Li , Umer Siddique , Yongcan Cao

Shapley values are a cornerstone of explainable AI, yet their proliferation into competing formulations has created a fragmented landscape with little consensus on practical deployment. While theoretical differences are well-documented,…

Machine Learning · Computer Science 2026-04-27 Inês Oliveira e Silva , Sérgio Jesus , Iker Perez , Rita P. Ribeiro , Carlos Soares , Hugo Ferreira , Pedro Bizarro

Shapley value-based methods have become foundational in explainable artificial intelligence (XAI), offering theoretically grounded feature attributions through cooperative game theory. However, in practice, particularly in vision tasks, the…

Artificial Intelligence · Computer Science 2026-02-20 Xiangyu Zhou , Chenhan Xiao , Yang Weng

In Explainable AI (XAI), Shapley values are a popular model-agnostic framework for explaining predictions made by complex machine learning models. The computation of Shapley values requires estimating non-trivial contribution functions…

Machine Learning · Computer Science 2026-01-27 Lars Henry Berge Olsen , Martin Jullum

Shapley values are great analytical tools in game theory to measure the importance of a player in a game. Due to their axiomatic and desirable properties such as efficiency, they have become popular for feature importance analysis in data…

Machine Learning · Computer Science 2020-10-26 Ramin Okhrati , Aldo Lipani

Given an unexpected change in the output metric of a large-scale system, it is important to answer why the change occurred: which inputs caused the change in metric? A key component of such an attribution question is estimating the…

Machine Learning · Computer Science 2022-08-18 Amit Sharma , Hua Li , Jian Jiao

eXplainable artificial intelligence (XAI) methods have emerged to convert the black box of machine learning (ML) models into a more digestible form. These methods help to communicate how the model works with the aim of making ML models more…

Explainable Artificial Intelligence (XAI) plays a crucial role in fostering transparency and trust in AI systems, where traditional XAI approaches typically offer one level of abstraction for explanations, often in the form of heatmaps…

A popular explainable AI (XAI) approach to quantify feature importance of a given model is via Shapley values. These Shapley values arose in cooperative games, and hence a critical ingredient to compute these in an XAI context is a…

Machine Learning · Computer Science 2022-02-25 Chih-Kuan Yeh , Kuan-Yun Lee , Frederick Liu , Pradeep Ravikumar

Many existing approaches for estimating feature importance are problematic because they ignore or hide dependencies among features. A causal graph, which encodes the relationships among input variables, can aid in assigning feature…

Machine Learning · Computer Science 2021-03-01 Jiaxuan Wang , Jenna Wiens , Scott Lundberg

Over the last few years, the Shapley value, a solution concept from cooperative game theory, has found numerous applications in machine learning. In this paper, we first discuss fundamental concepts of cooperative game theory and axiomatic…

Machine Learning · Computer Science 2022-05-27 Benedek Rozemberczki , Lauren Watson , Péter Bayer , Hao-Tsung Yang , Olivér Kiss , Sebastian Nilsson , Rik Sarkar

Shapley values have seen widespread use in machine learning as a way to explain model predictions and estimate the importance of covariates. Accurately explaining models is critical in real-world models to both aid in decision making and to…

Machine Learning · Statistics 2024-08-19 Daniel de Marchi , Michael Kosorok , Scott de Marchi

We examine counterfactual explanations for explaining the decisions made by model-based AI systems. The counterfactual approach we consider defines an explanation as a set of the system's data inputs that causally drives the decision (i.e.,…

Machine Learning · Computer Science 2021-10-14 Carlos Fernández-Loría , Foster Provost , Xintian Han

Shapley value is a classic notion from game theory, historically used to quantify the contributions of individuals within groups, and more recently applied to assign values to data points when training machine learning models. Despite its…

Machine Learning · Computer Science 2020-02-28 Amirata Ghorbani , Michael P. Kim , James Zou

Attribution-based explanation techniques capture key patterns to enhance visual interpretability; however, these patterns often lack the granularity needed for insight in fine-grained tasks, particularly in cases of model misclassification,…

Artificial Intelligence · Computer Science 2025-11-12 Lintong Zhang , Kang Yin , Seong-Whan Lee

We present an unsupervised method for aggregating anomalies in tabular datasets by identifying the top-k tabular data quality insights. Each insight consists of a set of anomalous attributes and the corresponding subsets of records that…

Machine Learning · Computer Science 2025-01-14 Manisha Padala , Lokesh Nagalapatti , Atharv Tyagi , Ramasuri Narayanam , Shiv Kumar Saini

Originally introduced in cooperative game theory, Shapley values have become a very popular tool to explain machine learning predictions. Based on Shapley's fairness axioms, every input (feature component) gets a credit how it contributes…

Machine Learning · Statistics 2025-08-19 Michael Mayer , Mario V. Wüthrich

Explainable artificial intelligence promises to yield insights into relevant features, thereby enabling humans to examine and scrutinize machine learning models or even facilitating scientific discovery. Considering the widespread technique…

Machine Learning · Computer Science 2026-03-30 Jörg Martin , Stefan Haufe