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This paper surveys and organizes research works in a new paradigm in natural language processing, which we dub "prompt-based learning". Unlike traditional supervised learning, which trains a model to take in an input x and predict an output…

Computation and Language · Computer Science 2021-07-30 Pengfei Liu , Weizhe Yuan , Jinlan Fu , Zhengbao Jiang , Hiroaki Hayashi , Graham Neubig

Foundation models pre-trained on large-scale data have been widely witnessed to achieve success in various natural imaging downstream tasks. Parameter-efficient fine-tuning (PEFT) methods aim to adapt foundation models to new domains by…

Computer Vision and Pattern Recognition · Computer Science 2025-03-24 Wenqiang Zu , Shenghao Xie , Qing Zhao , Guoqi Li , Lei Ma

Continual learning (CL) enables deep networks to acquire new knowledge while avoiding catastrophic forgetting. The powerful generalization ability of pre-trained models (PTMs), such as the Contrastive Language-Image Pre-training (CLIP)…

Computer Vision and Pattern Recognition · Computer Science 2025-12-22 Haodong Lu , Xinyu Zhang , Kristen Moore , Jason Xue , Lina Yao , Anton van den Hengel , Dong Gong

Language model pre-training, such as BERT, has achieved remarkable results in many NLP tasks. However, it is unclear why the pre-training-then-fine-tuning paradigm can improve performance and generalization capability across different…

Computation and Language · Computer Science 2019-08-16 Yaru Hao , Li Dong , Furu Wei , Ke Xu

Prompting large language models has gained immense popularity in recent years due to the advantage of producing good results even without the need for labelled data. However, this requires prompt tuning to get optimal prompts that lead to…

Computation and Language · Computer Science 2024-03-06 Jacob-Junqi Tian , David Emerson , Sevil Zanjani Miyandoab , Deval Pandya , Laleh Seyyed-Kalantari , Faiza Khan Khattak

A popular method to adapt large language models (LLMs) to new tasks is in-context learning (ICL), which is effective but incurs high inference costs as context length grows. In this paper we propose a method to perform instruction…

Computation and Language · Computer Science 2025-11-03 Emily Xiao , Yixiao Zeng , Ada Chen , Chin-Jou Li , Amanda Bertsch , Graham Neubig

Parameter-efficient transfer learning (PETL) is proposed as a cost-effective way to transfer pre-trained models to downstream tasks, avoiding the high cost of updating entire large-scale pre-trained models (LPMs). In this work, we present…

Computer Vision and Pattern Recognition · Computer Science 2024-07-03 Yijin Huang , Pujin Cheng , Roger Tam , Xiaoying Tang

Prompting has become a practical method for utilizing pre-trained language models (LMs). This approach offers several advantages. It allows an LM to adapt to new tasks with minimal training and parameter updates, thus achieving efficiency…

Audio and Speech Processing · Electrical Eng. & Systems 2024-08-26 Kai-Wei Chang , Haibin Wu , Yu-Kai Wang , Yuan-Kuei Wu , Hua Shen , Wei-Cheng Tseng , Iu-thing Kang , Shang-Wen Li , Hung-yi Lee

Prompt tuning introduces learnable prompt vectors that adapt pretrained vision-language models to downstream tasks in a parameter-efficient manner. However, under limited supervision, prompt tuning alters pretrained representations and…

Computer Vision and Pattern Recognition · Computer Science 2026-02-24 Xi Yang , Yuanrong Xu , Weigang Zhang , Guangming Lu , David Zhang , Jie Wen

Vision-language models (VLMs) have demonstrated exceptional generalization capabilities for downstream tasks. Due to its efficiency, prompt learning has gradually become a more effective and efficient method for transferring VLMs to…

Computer Vision and Pattern Recognition · Computer Science 2026-05-12 Chenhao Ding , Xinyuan Gao , Songlin Dong , Jizhou Han , Qiang Wang , Zhengdong Zhou , Yuhang He , Yihong Gong

Prompting language models (LMs) with training examples and task descriptions has been seen as critical to recent successes in few-shot learning. In this work, we show that finetuning LMs in the few-shot setting can considerably reduce the…

Computation and Language · Computer Science 2021-07-02 Robert L. Logan , Ivana Balažević , Eric Wallace , Fabio Petroni , Sameer Singh , Sebastian Riedel

Instruction fine-tuning has recently emerged as a promising approach for improving the zero-shot capabilities of Large Language Models (LLMs) on new tasks. This technique has shown particular strength in improving the performance of…

Computation and Language · Computer Science 2023-07-13 Jiuding Sun , Chantal Shaib , Byron C. Wallace

Parameter-Efficient Fine-Tuning (PEFT) methods have become crucial for rapidly adapting large language models (LLMs) to downstream tasks. Prefix-Tuning, an early and effective PEFT technique, demonstrated the ability to achieve performance…

Computation and Language · Computer Science 2026-04-21 Haonan Wang , Brian Chen , Siquan Li , Xinhe Liang , Hwee Kuan Lee , Kenji Kawaguchi , Tianyang Hu

Visual Prompt Tuning (VPT) has emerged as a parameter-efficient fine-tuning paradigm for vision transformers, with conventional approaches utilizing dataset-level prompts that remain the same across all input instances. We observe that this…

Computer Vision and Pattern Recognition · Computer Science 2025-07-11 Xi Xiao , Yunbei Zhang , Xingjian Li , Tianyang Wang , Xiao Wang , Yuxiang Wei , Jihun Hamm , Min Xu

The introduction of pre-trained language models has revolutionized natural language research communities. However, researchers still know relatively little regarding their theoretical and empirical properties. In this regard, Peters et al.…

Computation and Language · Computer Science 2019-07-12 Ran Wang , Haibo Su , Chunye Wang , Kailin Ji , Jupeng Ding

Soft prompt tuning techniques have recently gained traction as an effective strategy for the parameter-efficient tuning of pretrained language models, particularly minimizing the required adjustment of model parameters. Despite their…

Computation and Language · Computer Science 2024-06-11 MohammadAli SadraeiJavaeri , Ehsaneddin Asgari , Alice Carolyn McHardy , Hamid Reza Rabiee

Instruction tuning of language models has demonstrated the ability to enhance model generalization to unseen tasks via in-context learning using a few examples. However, typical supervised learning still requires a plethora of downstream…

Computation and Language · Computer Science 2023-06-12 Himanshu Gupta , Saurabh Arjun Sawant , Swaroop Mishra , Mutsumi Nakamura , Arindam Mitra , Santosh Mashetty , Chitta Baral

Large-scale pre-trained transformers have demonstrated remarkable success in various computer vision tasks. However, it is still highly challenging to fully fine-tune these models for downstream tasks due to their high computational and…

Computer Vision and Pattern Recognition · Computer Science 2023-04-27 Zhao Song , Ke Yang , Naiyang Guan , Junjie Zhu , Peng Qiao , Qingyong Hu

Contemporary continual learning approaches typically select prompts from a pool, which function as supplementary inputs to a pre-trained model. However, this strategy is hindered by the inherent noise of its selection approach when handling…

Computer Vision and Pattern Recognition · Computer Science 2024-04-30 Yong Dai , Xiaopeng Hong , Yabin Wang , Zhiheng Ma , Dongmei Jiang , Yaowei Wang

We introduce \`A-la-carte Prompt Tuning (APT), a transformer-based scheme to tune prompts on distinct data so that they can be arbitrarily composed at inference time. The individual prompts can be trained in isolation, possibly on different…