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In machine learning, contamination refers to situations where testing data leak into the training set. The issue is particularly relevant for the evaluation of the performance of Large Language Models (LLMs), which are generally trained on…

Computation and Language · Computer Science 2025-06-23 Nicolas Yax , Pierre-Yves Oudeyer , Stefano Palminteri

The application of Deep Neural Networks (DNNs) to a broad variety of tasks demands methods for coping with the complex and opaque nature of these architectures. When a gold standard is available, performance assessment treats the DNN as a…

Machine Learning · Computer Science 2022-12-23 Piero Fraternali , Federico Milani , Rocio Nahime Torres , Niccolò Zangrando

According to the considerable growth in the avail of chest X-ray images in diagnosing various diseases, as well as gathering extensive datasets, having an automated diagnosis procedure using deep neural networks has occupied the minds of…

Computer Vision and Pattern Recognition · Computer Science 2022-06-10 Sina Taslimi , Soroush Taslimi , Nima Fathi , Mohammadreza Salehi , Mohammad Hossein Rohban

Large language models(LLMs) excel at text generation and knowledge question-answering tasks, but they are prone to generating hallucinated content, severely limiting their application in high-risk domains. Current hallucination detection…

Computation and Language · Computer Science 2025-12-25 Shize Liang , Hongzhi Wang

Robust explanations are increasingly required for user trust in enterprise NLP, yet pre-deployment validation is difficult in the common case of black-box deployment (API-only access) where representation-based explainers are infeasible and…

Computation and Language · Computer Science 2026-04-28 Guilin Zhang , Kai Zhao , Jeffrey Friedman , Xu Chu , Amine Anoun , Jerry Ting

Investigating deep learning language models has always been a significant research area due to the ``black box" nature of most advanced models. With the recent advancements in pre-trained language models based on transformers and their…

Computation and Language · Computer Science 2023-06-22 Mohamad Ballout , Ulf Krumnack , Gunther Heidemann , Kai-Uwe Kühnberger

Neural combinatorial optimization (NCO) has achieved remarkable performance, yet its learned model representations and decision rationale remain a black box. This impedes both academic research and practical deployment, since researchers…

Machine Learning · Computer Science 2025-10-28 Zhiqin Zhang , Yining Ma , Zhiguang Cao , Hoong Chuin Lau

The success of Deep Learning and its potential use in many safety-critical applications has motivated research on formal verification of Neural Network (NN) models. Despite the reputation of learned NN models to behave as black boxes and…

Artificial Intelligence · Computer Science 2018-05-23 Rudy Bunel , Ilker Turkaslan , Philip H. S. Torr , Pushmeet Kohli , M. Pawan Kumar

Deep Neural Networks in NLP have enabled systems to learn complex non-linear relationships. One of the major bottlenecks towards being able to use DNNs for real world applications is their characterization as black boxes. To solve this…

Computation and Language · Computer Science 2022-06-01 Subhadip Maji , Arijit Ghosh Chowdhury , Raghav Bali , Vamsi M Bhandaru

Deep learning has become increasingly popular in both supervised and unsupervised machine learning thanks to its outstanding empirical performance. However, because of their intrinsic complexity, most deep learning methods are largely…

Machine Learning · Computer Science 2018-09-07 Yang Young Lu , Yingying Fan , Jinchi Lv , William Stafford Noble

We propose a novel confidence scoring mechanism for deep neural networks based on a two-model paradigm involving a base model and a meta-model. The confidence score is learned by the meta-model observing the base model succeeding/failing at…

Machine Learning · Computer Science 2019-04-19 Tongfei Chen , Jiří Navrátil , Vijay Iyengar , Karthikeyan Shanmugam

In recent years, deep learning has become prevalent to solve applications from multiple domains. Convolutional Neural Networks (CNNs) particularly have demonstrated state of the art performance for the task of image classification. However,…

Computer Vision and Pattern Recognition · Computer Science 2021-12-01 Meghna P Ayyar , Jenny Benois-Pineau , Akka Zemmari

Deep neural network (DNN) as a popular machine learning model is found to be vulnerable to adversarial attack. This attack constructs adversarial examples by adding small perturbations to the raw input, while appearing unmodified to human…

Machine Learning · Computer Science 2018-09-14 Pengcheng Li , Jinfeng Yi , Lijun Zhang

Black-box attack methods aim to infer suitable attack patterns to targeted DNN models by only using output feedback of the models and the corresponding input queries. However, due to lack of prior and inefficiency in leveraging the query…

Computer Vision and Pattern Recognition · Computer Science 2020-02-18 Jiawei Du , Hu Zhang , Joey Tianyi Zhou , Yi Yang , Jiashi Feng

Test Suite Minimization (TSM) reduces the size of test suites while preserving their fault detection capability. In black-box TSM, reduction is performed without analyzing production code. While several black-box TSM approaches have…

Software Engineering · Computer Science 2026-05-18 Md Siam , Kazi Sakib

Deep Neural Networks (DNNs) are increasingly deployed in safety-critical applications including autonomous vehicles and medical diagnostics. To reduce the residual risk for unexpected DNN behaviour and provide evidence for their trustworthy…

Software Engineering · Computer Science 2019-02-19 Hasan Ferit Eniser , Simos Gerasimou , Alper Sen

As API access becomes a primary interface to large language models (LLMs), users often interact with black-box systems that offer little transparency into the deployed model. To reduce costs or maliciously alter model behaviors, API…

Cryptography and Security · Computer Science 2026-04-10 Xiaoyuan Zhu , Yaowen Ye , Tianyi Qiu , Hanlin Zhu , Sijun Tan , Ajraf Mannan , Jonathan Michala , Raluca Ada Popa , Willie Neiswanger

Machine learning (ML) model explainability has received growing attention, especially in the area related to model risk and regulations. In this paper, we reviewed and compared some popular ML model explainability methodologies, especially…

Artificial Intelligence · Computer Science 2021-06-15 Shafie Gholizadeh , Nengfeng Zhou

Note: This paper describes an older version of DeepLIFT. See https://arxiv.org/abs/1704.02685 for the newer version. Original abstract follows: The purported "black box" nature of neural networks is a barrier to adoption in applications…

Machine Learning · Computer Science 2017-04-12 Avanti Shrikumar , Peyton Greenside , Anna Shcherbina , Anshul Kundaje

Deep learning systems are known to be vulnerable to adversarial examples. In particular, query-based black-box attacks do not require knowledge of the deep learning model, but can compute adversarial examples over the network by submitting…

Cryptography and Security · Computer Science 2022-06-10 Huiying Li , Shawn Shan , Emily Wenger , Jiayun Zhang , Haitao Zheng , Ben Y. Zhao