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Whole Slide Imaging (WSI), which involves high-resolution digital scans of pathology slides, has become the gold standard for cancer diagnosis, but its gigapixel resolution and the scarcity of annotated datasets present challenges for deep…

Image and Video Processing · Electrical Eng. & Systems 2025-02-03 Rita Pereira , M. Rita Verdelho , Catarina Barata , Carlos Santiago

Computational pathology involves the digitization of stained tissues into whole-slide images (WSIs) that contain billions of pixels arranged as contiguous patches. Statistical analysis of WSIs largely focuses on classification via multiple…

Computer Vision and Pattern Recognition · Computer Science 2026-03-24 So Won Jeong , Veronika Ročková

Multiple Instance Learning (MIL) for whole slide image (WSI) analysis in computational pathology often neglects instance-level learning as supervision is typically provided only at the bag level, hindering the integrated consideration of…

Computer Vision and Pattern Recognition · Computer Science 2025-09-26 Shuyang Wu , Yifu Qiu , Ines P. Nearchou , Sandrine Prost , Jonathan A. Fallowfield , Hideki Ueno , Hitoshi Tsuda , David J. Harrison , Hakan Bilen , Timothy J. Kendall

This paper introduces MAD-MIL, a Multi-head Attention-based Deep Multiple Instance Learning model, designed for weakly supervised Whole Slide Images (WSIs) classification in digital pathology. Inspired by the multi-head attention mechanism…

Computer Vision and Pattern Recognition · Computer Science 2024-04-09 Hassan Keshvarikhojasteh , Josien Pluim , Mitko Veta

The burgeoning discipline of computational pathology shows promise in harnessing whole slide images (WSIs) to quantify morphological heterogeneity and develop objective prognostic modes for human cancers. However, progress is impeded by the…

Computer Vision and Pattern Recognition · Computer Science 2025-10-20 Chao Tu , Kun Huang , Jie Zhang , Qianjin Feng , Yu Zhang , Zhenyuan Ning

Due to its superior efficiency in utilizing annotations and addressing gigapixel-sized images, multiple instance learning (MIL) has shown great promise as a framework for whole slide image (WSI) classification in digital pathology…

Quantitative Methods · Quantitative Biology 2023-07-14 Qiehe Sun , Jiawen Li , Jin Xu , Junru Cheng , Tian Guan , Yonghong He

Multiple-instance Learning (MIL) is commonly used to undertake computational pathology (CPath) tasks, and the use of multi-scale patches allows diverse features across scales to be learned. Previous studies using multi-scale features in…

Computer Vision and Pattern Recognition · Computer Science 2026-02-03 Shuyang Wu , Yifu Qiu , Ines P. Nearchou , Sandrine Prost , Jonathan A Fallowfield , Hakan Bilen , Timothy J Kendall

Multiple instance learning (MIL) stands as a powerful approach in weakly supervised learning, regularly employed in histological whole slide image (WSI) classification for detecting tumorous lesions. However, existing mainstream MIL methods…

Image and Video Processing · Electrical Eng. & Systems 2024-07-08 Wenhui Zhu , Xiwen Chen , Peijie Qiu , Aristeidis Sotiras , Abolfazl Razi , Yalin Wang

Multi-instance learning (MIL) is widely used in the computer-aided interpretation of pathological Whole Slide Images (WSIs) to solve the lack of pixel-wise or patch-wise annotations. Often, this approach directly applies "natural image…

The first step in Multiple Instance Learning (MIL) algorithms for Whole Slide Image (WSI) classification consists of tiling the input image into smaller patches and computing their feature vectors produced by a pre-trained feature extractor…

Computer Vision and Pattern Recognition · Computer Science 2024-03-11 Juan I. Pisula , Katarzyna Bozek

In the field of computational histopathology, both whole slide images (WSIs) and diagnostic captions provide valuable insights for making diagnostic decisions. However, aligning WSIs with diagnostic captions presents a significant…

Computer Vision and Pattern Recognition · Computer Science 2025-03-18 Qifeng Zhou , Wenliang Zhong , Yuzhi Guo , Michael Xiao , Hehuan Ma , Junzhou Huang

Whole Slide Image (WSI) analysis is a powerful method to facilitate the diagnosis of cancer in tissue samples. Automating this diagnosis poses various issues, most notably caused by the immense image resolution and limited annotations. WSIs…

Computer Vision and Pattern Recognition · Computer Science 2023-04-19 Ahmet Gokberk Gul , Oezdemir Cetin , Christoph Reich , Tim Prangemeier , Nadine Flinner , Heinz Koeppl

Multiple instance learning (MIL) is the standard approach for whole-slide image (WSI) classification and survival prediction, where attention-based models ag gregate patch features into slide-level predictions. These models treat attention…

Computer Vision and Pattern Recognition · Computer Science 2026-05-19 Xiangyu Li , Ran Su

Multiple Instance Learning (MIL) is a widely employed framework for learning on gigapixel whole-slide images (WSIs) from WSI-level annotations. In most MIL based analytical pipelines for WSI-level analysis, the WSIs are often divided into…

Computer Vision and Pattern Recognition · Computer Science 2022-11-01 Imaad Zaffar , Guillaume Jaume , Nasir Rajpoot , Faisal Mahmood

In whole slide images (WSIs) analysis, attention-based multi-instance learning (MIL) models are susceptible to spurious correlations and degrade under domain shift. These methods may assign high attention weights to non-tumor regions, such…

Computer Vision and Pattern Recognition · Computer Science 2025-12-08 Xin Liu , Weijia Zhang , Wei Tang , Thuc Duy Le , Jiuyong Li , Lin Liu , Min-Ling Zhang

Whole slide image (WSI) classification is a critical task in computational pathology. However, the gigapixel-size of such images remains a major challenge for the current state of deep-learning. Current methods rely on multiple-instance…

Computer Vision and Pattern Recognition · Computer Science 2023-10-04 Etienne Pochet , Rami Maroun , Roger Trullo

In the realm of digital pathology, multi-magnification Multiple Instance Learning (multi-mag MIL) has proven effective in leveraging the hierarchical structure of Whole Slide Images (WSIs) to reduce information loss and redundant data.…

Computer Vision and Pattern Recognition · Computer Science 2024-10-11 Yujian Liu , Ruoxuan Wu , Xinjie Shen , Zihuang Lu , Lingyu Liang , Haiyu Zhou , Shipu Xu , Shaoai Cai , Shidang Xu

The survival analysis on histological whole-slide images (WSIs) is one of the most important means to estimate patient prognosis. Although many weakly-supervised deep learning models have been developed for gigapixel WSIs, their potential…

Image and Video Processing · Electrical Eng. & Systems 2023-11-06 Pei Liu , Luping Ji , Feng Ye , Bo Fu

Multiple instance learning (MIL) is an effective and widely used approach for weakly supervised machine learning. In histopathology, MIL models have achieved remarkable success in tasks like tumor detection, biomarker prediction, and…

Cancer diagnosis has greatly benefited from the integration of whole-slide images (WSIs) with multiple instance learning (MIL), enabling high-resolution analysis of tissue morphology. Graph-based MIL (GNN-MIL) approaches have emerged as…

Computer Vision and Pattern Recognition · Computer Science 2025-08-27 Jongwoo Kim , Bryan Wong , Huazhu Fu , Willmer Rafell Quiñones , Youngsin Ko , Mun Yong Yi