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The fields of quantum non-locality in physics, and causal discovery in machine learning, both face the problem of deciding whether observed data is compatible with a presumed causal relationship between the variables (for example a local…

Quantum Physics · Physics 2014-06-02 Rafael Chaves , Lukas Luft , David Gross

This paper provides a systematic account of the hidden variable models (HVMs) formulated to describe systems of random variables with mutually exclusive contexts. Any such system can be described either by a model with free choice but…

Quantum Physics · Physics 2023-09-19 Ehtibar N. Dzhafarov

Besides well-known conditions of locality or factorisability, deriving the Bell inequalities requires assuming that the distribution of hidden variables and Alice's and Bob's measurement settings be independent of each other. We show that…

Quantum Physics · Physics 2026-02-13 G. Bacciagaluppi , R. Hermens , G. Leegwater

In a recent paper published in PNAS authors prove that locality and free choice are equivalent resources which need to be relaxed in order to fully reproduce some statistics in Bell experiments (while always maintaining realism). We explain…

Quantum Physics · Physics 2021-06-01 Marian Kupczynski

This Comment argues that two assumptions, which are presented as basic assumptions of Bell's theorem in [J. Handsteiner et al., Phys. Rev. Lett. 118, 060401 (2017)] and elsewhere, in fact follow from more basic premises. Measurement…

Quantum Physics · Physics 2017-05-12 Nathan Argaman

The paper considers the claim that quantum theories with a deterministic dynamics of objects in ordinary space-time, such as Bohmian mechanics, contradict the assumption that the measurement settings can be freely chosen in the EPR…

Quantum Physics · Physics 2015-06-24 Michael Esfeld

If nonlocality is to be inferred from a violation of Bell's inequality, an important assumption is that the measurement settings are freely chosen by the observers, or alternatively, that they are random and uncorrelated with the…

Quantum Physics · Physics 2013-05-29 Jonathan Barrett , Nicolas Gisin

The demonstration and use of Bell-nonlocality, a concept that is fundamentally striking and is at the core of applications in device independent quantum information processing, relies heavily on the assumption of measurement independence,…

Quantum Physics · Physics 2016-05-13 Gilles Pütz , Nicolas Gisin

Bell's inequality was originally derived under the assumption that experimenters are free to select detector settings independently of any local "hidden variables" that might affect the outcomes of measurements on entangled particles. This…

In Bell scenario, any nonlocal correlation, shared between two spatially separated parties, can be modeled deterministically either by allowing communications between the two parties or by restricting their free will in choosing the…

Quantum Physics · Physics 2013-11-01 Manik Banik

Bell inequalities rest on three fundamental assumptions: realism, locality, and free choice, which lead to nontrivial constraints on correlations in very simple experiments. If we retain realism, then violation of the inequalities implies…

Quantum Physics · Physics 2021-05-20 Pawel Blasiak , Emmanuel M. Pothos , James M. Yearsley , Christoph Gallus , Ewa Borsuk

The assumption of free will - the ability of an experimentalist to make random choices - is central to proving the indeterminism of quantum resources, the primary tool in quantum cryptography. Relaxing the assumption in a Bell test allows…

Quantum Physics · Physics 2013-12-30 James E. Pope , Alastair Kay

Bell nonlocality, the fact that local hidden variable models cannot reproduce the correlations obtained by measurements on entangled states, is a cornerstone in our modern understanding of quantum theory. Apart from its fundamental…

Quantum Physics · Physics 2020-09-04 M. G. M. Moreno , Samuraí Brito , Ranieri V. Nery , Rafael Chaves

Contextual situations are those in which seemingly "the same" random variable changes its identity depending on the conditions under which it is recorded. Such a change of identity is observed whenever the assumption that the variable is…

Quantum Physics · Physics 2015-06-19 Ehtibar N. Dzhafarov , Janne V. Kujala

We consider testing whether a set of Gaussian variables, selected from the data, is independent of the remaining variables. We assume that this set is selected via a very simple approach that is commonly used across scientific disciplines:…

Methodology · Statistics 2022-11-04 Arkajyoti Saha , Daniela Witten , Jacob Bien

Models of a phenomenon are often developed by examining it under different experimental conditions, or measurement contexts. The resultant probabilistic models assume that the underlying random variables, which define a measurable set of…

Artificial Intelligence · Computer Science 2018-02-05 Peter D. Bruza

We consider an ontology, in which contextual nonlocal hidden variables are stored as pre-existing possibilities in a repository outside space-time; and in which the context can be chosen ``freely'' (measurement independence) by each agent,…

Quantum Physics · Physics 2026-05-11 Valerio Scarani , Antoine Suarez

Beginning with the Bell theorem, cyclic systems of dichotomous random variables have been the object of many foundational findings in quantum mechanics. Here, we ask the question: if one chooses a cyclic system "at random" (uniformly within…

Quantum Physics · Physics 2021-04-14 Ehtibar N. Dzhafarov , Janne V. Kujala , Víctor H. Cervantes

One of the conclusions that Bell drew from his famous inequality was that any hidden variable theory that satisfies Local Causality is incompatible with the predictions of Quantum Mechanics for Bell's Experiment. However, Local Causality…

Quantum Physics · Physics 2026-03-18 Joanna Luc

Contextuality and nonlocality are non-classical properties exhibited by quantum statistics whose implications profoundly impact both foundations and applications of quantum theory. In this paper we provide some insights into logical…

Quantum Physics · Physics 2021-08-11 Leonardo Santos , Barbara Amaral