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Context: Machine learning (ML) may enable effective automated test generation. Objective: We characterize emerging research, examining testing practices, researcher goals, ML techniques applied, evaluation, and challenges. Methods: We…

Software Engineering · Computer Science 2023-04-18 Afonso Fontes , Gregory Gay

Most current state-of-the art systems for generating English text from Abstract Meaning Representation (AMR) have been evaluated only using automated metrics, such as BLEU, which are known to be problematic for natural language generation.…

Computation and Language · Computer Science 2020-12-02 Emma Manning , Shira Wein , Nathan Schneider

Measuring the performance of natural language processing models is challenging. Traditionally used metrics, such as BLEU and ROUGE, originally devised for machine translation and summarization, have been shown to suffer from low correlation…

Computation and Language · Computer Science 2022-04-26 Kathrin Blagec , Georg Dorffner , Milad Moradi , Simon Ott , Matthias Samwald

This paper discusses two existing approaches to the correlation analysis between automatic evaluation metrics and human scores in the area of natural language generation. Our experiments show that depending on the usage of a system- or…

Computation and Language · Computer Science 2021-03-16 Anastasia Shimorina

Automatic metrics are fundamental for the development and evaluation of machine translation systems. Judging whether, and to what extent, automatic metrics concur with the gold standard of human evaluation is not a straightforward problem.…

Computation and Language · Computer Science 2020-06-15 Nitika Mathur , Timothy Baldwin , Trevor Cohn

In commonsense generation, given a set of input concepts, a model must generate a response that is not only commonsense bearing, but also capturing multiple diverse viewpoints. Numerous evaluation metrics based on form- and content-level…

Computation and Language · Computer Science 2025-06-03 Tianhui Zhang , Bei Peng , Danushka Bollegala

Large language models (LLMs) have demonstrated significant utility in real-world applications, exhibiting impressive capabilities in natural language processing and understanding. Benchmark evaluations are crucial for assessing the…

Computation and Language · Computer Science 2026-05-12 Wenbo Zhang , Hengrui Cai , Wenyu Chen

Recent advances in neural network-based generative modeling have reignited the hopes in having computer systems capable of seamlessly conversing with humans and able to understand natural language. Neural architectures have been employed to…

Computation and Language · Computer Science 2020-08-03 Cristina Garbacea , Qiaozhu Mei

The purpose of unconditional text generation is to train a model with real sentences, then generate novel sentences of the same quality and diversity as the training data. However, when different metrics are used for comparing the methods…

Computation and Language · Computer Science 2020-07-03 Ping Cai , Xingyuan Chen , Peng Jin , Hongjun Wang , Tianrui Li

We argue that there are currently two major bottlenecks to the commercial use of statistical machine learning approaches for natural language generation (NLG): (a) The lack of reliable automatic evaluation metrics for NLG, and (b) The…

Computation and Language · Computer Science 2017-06-30 Jekaterina Novikova , Ondřej Dušek , Verena Rieser

Evaluation in machine learning is usually informed by past choices, for example which datasets or metrics to use. This standardization enables the comparison on equal footing using leaderboards, but the evaluation choices become sub-optimal…

In this study, we analyze automatic evaluation metrics for Natural Language Generation (NLG), specifically task-agnostic metrics and human-aligned metrics. Task-agnostic metrics, such as Perplexity, BLEU, BERTScore, are cost-effective and…

Computation and Language · Computer Science 2023-05-29 Iftitahu Ni'mah , Meng Fang , Vlado Menkovski , Mykola Pechenizkiy

Researchers have devised numerous ways to quantify social biases vested in pretrained language models. As some language models are capable of generating coherent completions given a set of textual prompts, several prompting datasets have…

Computation and Language · Computer Science 2022-05-25 Afra Feyza Akyürek , Muhammed Yusuf Kocyigit , Sejin Paik , Derry Wijaya

Evaluating Natural Language Generation (NLG) is crucial for the practical adoption of AI, but has been a longstanding research challenge. While human evaluation is considered the de-facto standard, it is expensive and lacks scalability.…

Computation and Language · Computer Science 2025-08-20 Maria Paz Oliva , Adriana Correia , Ivan Vankov , Viktor Botev

A good automatic evaluation metric for language generation ideally correlates highly with human judgements of text quality. Yet, there is a dearth of such metrics, which inhibits the rapid and efficient progress of language generators. One…

Computation and Language · Computer Science 2023-06-30 Tiago Pimentel , Clara Meister , Ryan Cotterell

Collecting human judgements is currently the most reliable evaluation method for natural language generation systems. Automatic metrics have reported flaws when applied to measure quality aspects of generated text and have been shown to…

Computation and Language · Computer Science 2022-04-29 Thórhildur Thorleiksdóttir , Cedric Renggli , Nora Hollenstein , Ce Zhang

This paper introduces Leaderboard Auto Generation (LAG), a novel and well-organized framework for automatic generation of leaderboards on a given research topic in rapidly evolving fields like Artificial Intelligence (AI). Faced with a…

Computation and Language · Computer Science 2025-10-07 Jian Wu , Jiayu Zhang , Dongyuan Li , Linyi Yang , Aoxiao Zhong , Renhe Jiang , Qingsong Wen , Yue Zhang

Leaderboard systems allow researchers to objectively evaluate Natural Language Processing (NLP) models and are typically used to identify models that exhibit superior performance on a given task in a predetermined setting. However, we argue…

Computation and Language · Computer Science 2023-03-21 Chanjun Park , Hyeonseok Moon , Seolhwa Lee , Jaehyung Seo , Sugyeong Eo , Heuiseok Lim

One of the goals of automatic evaluation metrics in grammatical error correction (GEC) is to rank GEC systems such that it matches human preferences. However, current automatic evaluations are based on procedures that diverge from human…

Computation and Language · Computer Science 2025-06-04 Takumi Goto , Yusuke Sakai , Taro Watanabe

An increasing awareness of biased patterns in natural language processing resources, like BERT, has motivated many metrics to quantify `bias' and `fairness'. But comparing the results of different metrics and the works that evaluate with…

Computation and Language · Computer Science 2021-12-15 Pieter Delobelle , Ewoenam Kwaku Tokpo , Toon Calders , Bettina Berendt