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Machine learning can help personalized decision support by learning models to predict individual treatment effects (ITE). This work studies the reliability of prediction-based decision-making in a task of deciding which action $a$ to take…

Machine Learning · Statistics 2019-06-07 Iiris Sundin , Peter Schulam , Eero Siivola , Aki Vehtari , Suchi Saria , Samuel Kaski

Uplift modeling is a fundamental component of marketing effect modeling, which is commonly employed to evaluate the effects of treatments on outcomes. Through uplift modeling, we can identify the treatment with the greatest benefit. On the…

Machine Learning · Computer Science 2023-11-16 Haowen Wang , Xinyan Ye , Yangze Zhou , Zhiyi Zhang , Longhan Zhang , Jing Jiang

Uplift modeling, also known as individual treatment effect (ITE) estimation, is an important approach for data-driven decision making that aims to identify the causal impact of an intervention on individuals. This paper introduces a new…

Machine Learning · Computer Science 2023-12-13 Théo Verhelst , Denis Mercier , Jeevan Shrestha , Gianluca Bontempi

Treatment effect estimation can assist in effective decision-making in e-commerce, medicine, and education. One popular application of this estimation lies in the prediction of the impact of a treatment (e.g., a promotion) on an outcome…

Machine Learning · Computer Science 2023-09-26 Xiaofeng Lin , Guoxi Zhang , Xiaotian Lu , Han Bao , Koh Takeuchi , Hisashi Kashima

The goal of uplift modeling is to recommend actions that optimize specific outcomes by determining which entities should receive treatment. One common approach involves two steps: first, an inference step that estimates conditional average…

Machine Learning · Computer Science 2025-05-21 Simon De Vos , Christopher Bockel-Rickermann , Stefan Lessmann , Wouter Verbeke

Uplift modeling and Heterogeneous Treatment Effect (HTE) estimation aim at predicting the causal effect of an action, such as a medical treatment or a marketing campaign on a specific individual. In this paper, we focus on data from…

Machine Learning · Computer Science 2024-12-16 Krzysztof Rudaś , Szymon Jaroszewicz

Individual treatment effect (ITE) is often regarded as the ideal target of inference in causal analyses and has been the focus of several recent studies. In this paper, we describe the intrinsic limits regarding what can be learned…

Methodology · Statistics 2025-06-10 Zhehao Zhang , Thomas S. Richardson

Uplift is a particular case of individual treatment effect modeling. Such models deal with cause-and-effect inference for a specific factor, such as a marketing intervention. In practice, these models are built on customer data who…

Machine Learning · Statistics 2020-11-03 Belbahri Mouloud , Gandouet Olivier , Kazma Ghaith

Estimating Conditional Average Treatment Effects (CATE) at the individual level is central to precision marketing, yet systematic benchmarking of uplift modeling methods at industrial scale remains limited. We present UpliftBench, an…

Computation · Statistics 2026-04-08 Aman Singh

Estimating an individual treatment effect (ITE) is essential to personalized decision making. However, existing methods for estimating the ITE often rely on unconfoundedness, an assumption that is fundamentally untestable with observed…

Methodology · Statistics 2022-07-13 Mingzhang Yin , Claudia Shi , Yixin Wang , David M. Blei

Given a dataset of individuals each described by a covariate vector, a treatment, and an observed outcome on the treatment, the goal of the individual treatment effect (ITE) estimation task is to predict outcome changes resulting from a…

Machine Learning · Computer Science 2024-06-07 Lokesh Nagalapatti , Pranava Singhal , Avishek Ghosh , Sunita Sarawagi

Uplift modeling is crucial in various applications ranging from marketing and policy-making to personalized recommendations. The main objective is to learn optimal treatment allocations for a heterogeneous population. A primary line of…

Methodology · Statistics 2023-12-20 Preetam Nandy , Xiufan Yu , Wanjun Liu , Ye Tu , Kinjal Basu , Shaunak Chatterjee

Randomized experiments have been used to assist decision-making in many areas. They help people select the optimal treatment for the test population with certain statistical guarantee. However, subjects can show significant heterogeneity in…

Artificial Intelligence · Computer Science 2017-05-25 Yan Zhao , Xiao Fang , David Simchi-Levi

Big data and business analytics are critical drivers of business and societal transformations. Uplift models support a firm's decision-making by predicting the change of a customer's behavior due to a treatment. Prior work examines models…

Machine Learning · Computer Science 2021-01-12 Robin M. Gubela , Stefan Lessmann

Accurately quantifying uncertainty of individual treatment effects (ITEs) across multiple decision points is crucial for personalized decision-making in fields such as healthcare, finance, education, and online marketplaces. Previous work…

Methodology · Statistics 2025-12-10 Swaraj Bose , Walter Dempsey

Causal Inference has wide applications in various areas such as E-commerce and precision medicine, and its performance heavily relies on the accurate estimation of the Individual Treatment Effect (ITE). Conventionally, ITE is predicted by…

Machine Learning · Computer Science 2023-10-23 Kailiang Zhong , Fengtong Xiao , Yan Ren , Yaorong Liang , Wenqing Yao , Xiaofeng Yang , Ling Cen

Observational studies have recently received significant attention from the machine learning community due to the increasingly available non-experimental observational data and the limitations of the experimental studies, such as…

Machine Learning · Computer Science 2023-01-26 Vinod Kumar Chauhan , Soheila Molaei , Marzia Hoque Tania , Anshul Thakur , Tingting Zhu , David A. Clifton

Uncertainty quantification for individual treatment effects (ITEs) is a daunting challenge in causal inference. Motivated by recent advances in conformal prediction, several works aim to construct distribution-free prediction sets for ITEs…

Methodology · Statistics 2026-05-07 Chongguang Tao , Zheng Zhou , Yuhong Yang

In personalized marketing, uplift models estimate incremental effects by modeling how customer behavior changes under alternative treatments. However, real-world data often exhibit biases - such as selection bias, spillover effects, and…

Machine Learning · Computer Science 2026-03-24 Yuxuan Yang , Dugang Liu , Yiyan Huang

Selecting causal inference models for estimating individualized treatment effects (ITE) from observational data presents a unique challenge since the counterfactual outcomes are never observed. The problem is challenged further in the…

Machine Learning · Computer Science 2021-02-15 Trent Kyono , Ioana Bica , Zhaozhi Qian , Mihaela van der Schaar