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It is increasingly recognized that human annotators do not always agree, and such disagreement is inherent in many annotation tasks. However, not all instances in a given task elicit the same degree of opinion divergence. In this paper, we…

Computation and Language · Computer Science 2026-05-05 Leixin Zhang , Çağrı Çöltekin

Human annotated data is the cornerstone of today's artificial intelligence efforts, yet data labeling processes can be complicated and expensive, especially when human labelers disagree with each other. The current work practice is to use…

Human-Computer Interaction · Computer Science 2021-12-09 Yisi Sang , Jeffrey Stanton

Natural language processing research has begun to embrace the notion of annotator subjectivity, motivated by variations in labelling. This approach understands each annotator's view as valid, which can be highly suitable for tasks that…

Computation and Language · Computer Science 2024-03-05 Amanda Cercas Curry , Gavin Abercrombie , Zeerak Talat

Some users of social media are spreading racist, sexist, and otherwise hateful content. For the purpose of training a hate speech detection system, the reliability of the annotations is crucial, but there is no universally agreed-upon…

Computation and Language · Computer Science 2017-01-30 Björn Ross , Michael Rist , Guillermo Carbonell , Benjamin Cabrera , Nils Kurowsky , Michael Wojatzki

The damaging effects of hate speech on social media are evident during the last few years, and several organizations, researchers and social media platforms tried to harness them in various ways. Despite these efforts, social media users…

Information Retrieval · Computer Science 2020-05-04 Polychronis Charitidis , Stavros Doropoulos , Stavros Vologiannidis , Ioannis Papastergiou , Sophia Karakeva

What are the limits of automated Twitter sentiment classification? We analyze a large set of manually labeled tweets in different languages, use them as training data, and construct automated classification models. It turns out that the…

Computation and Language · Computer Science 2021-08-31 Igor Mozetic , Miha Grcar , Jasmina Smailovic

Hate speech detection is a common downstream application of natural language processing (NLP) in the real world. In spite of the increasing accuracy, current data-driven approaches could easily learn biases from the imbalanced data…

Computation and Language · Computer Science 2022-09-22 Yi Cai , Arthur Zimek , Gerhard Wunder , Eirini Ntoutsi

Hate Speech takes many forms to target communities with derogatory comments, and takes humanity a step back in societal progress. HateXplain is a recently published and first dataset to use annotated spans in the form of rationales, along…

Computation and Language · Computer Science 2022-08-10 Arvind Subramaniam , Aryan Mehra , Sayani Kundu

Today, the internet is an integral part of our daily lives, enabling people to be more connected than ever before. However, this greater connectivity and access to information increase exposure to harmful content such as cyber-bullying and…

Social and Information Networks · Computer Science 2023-10-31 Lanqin Yuan , Tianyu Wang , Gabriela Ferraro , Hanna Suominen , Marian-Andrei Rizoiu

Hateful rhetoric is plaguing online discourse, fostering extreme societal movements and possibly giving rise to real-world violence. A potential solution to this growing global problem is citizen-generated counter speech where citizens…

Computers and Society · Computer Science 2020-06-09 Joshua Garland , Keyan Ghazi-Zahedi , Jean-Gabriel Young , Laurent Hébert-Dufresne , Mirta Galesic

Stereotypes influence social perceptions and can escalate into discrimination and violence. While NLP research has extensively addressed gender bias and hate speech, stereotype detection remains an emerging field with significant societal…

Computation and Language · Computer Science 2025-10-08 Alessandra Teresa Cignarella , Anastasia Giachanou , Els Lefever

With the ever-increasing cases of hate spread on social media platforms, it is critical to design abuse detection mechanisms to proactively avoid and control such incidents. While there exist methods for hate speech detection, they…

Computation and Language · Computer Science 2020-01-17 Pinkesh Badjatiya , Manish Gupta , Vasudeva Varma

Disparate biases associated with datasets and trained classifiers in hateful and abusive content identification tasks have raised many concerns recently. Although the problem of biased datasets on abusive language detection has been…

Social and Information Networks · Computer Science 2021-01-27 Marzieh Mozafari , Reza Farahbakhsh , Noel Crespi

Current annotation agreement metrics are not well-suited for inter-group analysis, are sensitive to group size imbalances and restricted to single-annotation settings. These restrictions render them insufficient for many subjective tasks…

Computation and Language · Computer Science 2026-02-09 Dimitris Tsirmpas , John Pavlopoulos

A key challenge for automatic hate-speech detection on social media is the separation of hate speech from other instances of offensive language. Lexical detection methods tend to have low precision because they classify all messages…

Computation and Language · Computer Science 2017-03-14 Thomas Davidson , Dana Warmsley , Michael Macy , Ingmar Weber

The perceived toxicity of language can vary based on someone's identity and beliefs, but this variation is often ignored when collecting toxic language datasets, resulting in dataset and model biases. We seek to understand the who, why, and…

Computation and Language · Computer Science 2022-05-11 Maarten Sap , Swabha Swayamdipta , Laura Vianna , Xuhui Zhou , Yejin Choi , Noah A. Smith

Hate speech is plaguing the cyberspace along with user-generated content. This paper investigates the role of conversational context in the annotation and detection of online hate and counter speech, where context is defined as the…

Computation and Language · Computer Science 2022-06-15 Xinchen Yu , Eduardo Blanco , Lingzi Hong

Discriminatory language and biases are often present in hate speech during conversations, which usually lead to negative impacts on targeted groups such as those based on race, gender, and religion. To tackle this issue, we propose an…

Computation and Language · Computer Science 2023-07-21 Shaina Raza , Chen Ding , Deval Pandya

A significant challenge in automating hate speech detection on social media is distinguishing hate speech from regular and offensive language. These identify an essential category of content that web filters seek to remove. Only automated…

Computation and Language · Computer Science 2024-11-12 Faria Naznin , Md Touhidur Rahman , Shahran Rahman Alve

With the increasing diversity of use cases of large language models, a more informative treatment of texts seems necessary. An argumentative analysis could foster a more reasoned usage of chatbots, text completion mechanisms or other…

Computation and Language · Computer Science 2023-06-06 Damián Furman , Pablo Torres , José A. Rodríguez , Diego Letzen , Vanina Martínez , Laura Alonso Alemany