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Although neural models have achieved impressive results on several NLP benchmarks, little is understood about the mechanisms they use to perform language tasks. Thus, much recent attention has been devoted to analyzing the sentence…

Computation and Language · Computer Science 2021-03-09 Abhilasha Ravichander , Yonatan Belinkov , Eduard Hovy

With the success of self-supervised representations, researchers seek a better understanding of the information encapsulated within a representation. Among various interpretability methods, we focus on classification-based linear probing.…

Information Theory · Computer Science 2023-12-18 Kwanghee Choi , Jee-weon Jung , Shinji Watanabe

Pre-trained contextual representations have led to dramatic performance improvements on a range of downstream tasks. Such performance improvements have motivated researchers to quantify and understand the linguistic information encoded in…

Computation and Language · Computer Science 2022-03-28 Alexander Immer , Lucas Torroba Hennigen , Vincent Fortuin , Ryan Cotterell

Probing is widely used to study which features can be decoded from language model representations. However, the common decoding probe approach has two limitations that we aim to solve with our new encoding probe approach: contributions of…

Computation and Language · Computer Science 2026-05-04 Gaofei Shen , Martijn Bentum , Tom Lentz , Afra Alishahi , Grzegorz Chrupała

The ability to identify and control different kinds of linguistic information encoded in vector representations of words has many use cases, especially for explainability and bias removal. This is usually done via a set of simple…

Computation and Language · Computer Science 2023-10-25 Tal Levy , Omer Goldman , Reut Tsarfaty

Probing (or diagnostic classification) has become a popular strategy for investigating whether a given set of intermediate features is present in the representations of neural models. Probing studies may have misleading results, but various…

Machine Learning · Computer Science 2021-10-01 Deborah Ferreira , Julia Rozanova , Mokanarangan Thayaparan , Marco Valentino , André Freitas

Measuring what linguistic information is encoded in neural models of language has become popular in NLP. Researchers approach this enterprise by training "probes" - supervised models designed to extract linguistic structure from another…

Computation and Language · Computer Science 2020-05-13 Rowan Hall Maudslay , Josef Valvoda , Tiago Pimentel , Adina Williams , Ryan Cotterell

The success of pre-trained contextualized representations has prompted researchers to analyze them for the presence of linguistic information. Indeed, it is natural to assume that these pre-trained representations do encode some level of…

Computation and Language · Computer Science 2025-08-08 Karolina Stańczak , Lucas Torroba Hennigen , Adina Williams , Ryan Cotterell , Isabelle Augenstein

The question of what kinds of linguistic information are encoded in different layers of Transformer-based language models is of considerable interest for the NLP community. Existing work, however, has overwhelmingly focused on word-level…

Computation and Language · Computer Science 2023-10-19 Dmitry Nikolaev , Sebastian Padó

To measure how well pretrained representations encode some linguistic property, it is common to use accuracy of a probe, i.e. a classifier trained to predict the property from the representations. Despite widespread adoption of probes,…

Computation and Language · Computer Science 2020-03-30 Elena Voita , Ivan Titov

The success of neural networks on a diverse set of NLP tasks has led researchers to question how much these networks actually ``know'' about natural language. Probes are a natural way of assessing this. When probing, a researcher chooses a…

Computation and Language · Computer Science 2020-05-26 Tiago Pimentel , Josef Valvoda , Rowan Hall Maudslay , Ran Zmigrod , Adina Williams , Ryan Cotterell

Understanding what knowledge is implicitly encoded in deep learning models is essential for improving the interpretability of AI systems. This paper examines common methods to explain the knowledge encoded in word embeddings, which are core…

Computation and Language · Computer Science 2025-08-20 Hanna Herasimchyk , Alhassan Abdelhalim , Sören Laue , Michaela Regneri

Recent causal probing literature reveals when language models and syntactic probes use similar representations. Such techniques may yield "false negative" causality results: models may use representations of syntax, but probes may have…

Computation and Language · Computer Science 2022-04-22 Mycal Tucker , Tiwalayo Eisape , Peng Qian , Roger Levy , Julie Shah

The goal of this paper is to learn more about how idiomatic information is structurally encoded in embeddings, using a structural probing method. We repurpose an existing English verbal multi-word expression (MWE) dataset to suit the…

Computation and Language · Computer Science 2023-04-28 Filip Klubička , Vasudevan Nedumpozhimana , John D. Kelleher

Semantic embeddings have advanced the state of the art for countless natural language processing tasks, and various extensions to multimodal domains, such as visual-semantic embeddings, have been proposed. While the power of visual-semantic…

Machine Learning · Computer Science 2021-02-23 Adam Dahlgren Lindström , Suna Bensch , Johanna Björklund , Frank Drewes

Probes are models devised to investigate the encoding of knowledge -- e.g. syntactic structure -- in contextual representations. Probes are often designed for simplicity, which has led to restrictions on probe design that may not allow for…

Computation and Language · Computer Science 2021-05-24 Jennifer C. White , Tiago Pimentel , Naomi Saphra , Ryan Cotterell

Probes are small networks that predict properties of underlying data from embeddings, and they provide a targeted, effective way to illuminate the information contained in embeddings. While analysis through the use of probes has become…

Progress in pre-trained language models has led to a surge of impressive results on downstream tasks for natural language understanding. Recent work on probing pre-trained language models uncovered a wide range of linguistic properties…

Computation and Language · Computer Science 2022-03-22 Zeming Chen , Qiyue Gao

Conditionals are useful for modelling, but are not always sufficiently expressive for capturing information accurately. In this paper we make the case for a form of conditional that is situation-based. These conditionals are more expressive…

Artificial Intelligence · Computer Science 2023-04-18 Giovanni Casini , Thomas Meyer , Ivan Varzinczak

Sentence encoders map sentences to real valued vectors for use in downstream applications. To peek into these representations - e.g., to increase interpretability of their results - probing tasks have been designed which query them for…

Computation and Language · Computer Science 2020-10-29 Steffen Eger , Johannes Daxenberger , Iryna Gurevych
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