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Predicting properties of complex, large-scale quantum systems is essential for developing quantum technologies. We present an efficient method for constructing an approximate classical description of a quantum state using very few…

Quantum Physics · Physics 2021-04-20 Hsin-Yuan Huang , Richard Kueng , John Preskill

Full quantum tomography of high-dimensional quantum systems is experimentally infeasible due to the exponential scaling of the number of required measurements on the number of qubits in the system. However, several ideas were proposed…

Quantum Physics · Physics 2021-01-20 G. I. Struchalin , Ya. A. Zagorovskii , E. V. Kovlakov , S. S. Straupe , S. P. Kulik

Classical shadows are a computationally efficient approach to storing quantum states on a classical computer for the purposes of estimating expectation values of local observables, obtained by performing repeated random measurements. In…

Quantum Physics · Physics 2023-05-03 Saumya Shivam , C. W. von Keyserlingk , S. L. Sondhi

Learning quantum state properties is both a fundamental and practical problem in quantum information theory. Classical shadows have emerged as an efficient method for estimating properties of unknown quantum states, with rigorous…

Quantum Physics · Physics 2026-03-30 Hugo Thomas , Ulysse Chabaud , Pierre-Emmanuel Emeriau

Classical Shadow Tomography (Huang, Kueng and Preskill, Nature Physics 2020) is a method for creating a classical snapshot of an unknown quantum state, which can later be used to predict the value of an a-priori unknown observable on that…

Quantum Physics · Physics 2025-07-15 Zvika Brakerski , Nir Magrafta , Tomer Solomon

The classical shadows protocol, recently introduced by Huang, Kueng, and Preskill [Nat. Phys. 16, 1050 (2020)], is a quantum-classical protocol to estimate properties of an unknown quantum state. Unlike full quantum state tomography, the…

Quantum Physics · Physics 2022-08-17 Dax Enshan Koh , Sabee Grewal

Classical shadows constitute a protocol to estimate the expectation values of a collection of M observables acting on O(1) qubits of an unknown n-qubit state with a number of measurements that is independent of n and that grows only…

Quantum Physics · Physics 2024-10-03 Giacomo De Palma , Tristan Klein , Davide Pastorello

Estimation of expectation values of incompatible observables is an essential practical task in quantum computing, especially for approximating energies of chemical and other many-body quantum systems. In this work we introduce a method for…

Quantum Physics · Physics 2023-03-14 Daniel McNulty , Filip B. Maciejewski , Michał Oszmaniec

Classical shadows provide a versatile framework for estimating many properties of quantum states from repeated, randomly chosen measurements without requiring full quantum state tomography. When prior information is available, such as…

Quantum Physics · Physics 2026-05-27 Jacob Bringewatt , Henry Froland , Andreas Elben , Niklas Mueller

Obtaining precise estimates of quantum observables is a crucial step of variational quantum algorithms. We consider the problem of estimating expectation values of molecular Hamiltonians, obtained on states prepared on a quantum computer.…

Quantum Physics · Physics 2020-06-30 Charles Hadfield , Sergey Bravyi , Rudy Raymond , Antonio Mezzacapo

Predicting features of complex, large-scale quantum systems is essential to the characterization and engineering of quantum architectures. We present an efficient approach for constructing an approximate classical description, called the…

Quantum Physics · Physics 2019-11-26 Hsin-Yuan Huang , Richard Kueng

Interfacing quantum and classical processors is an important subroutine in full-stack quantum algorithms. The so-called "classical shadow" method efficiently extracts essential classical information from quantum states, enabling the…

Quantum Physics · Physics 2025-09-11 Shuowei Ma , Junyu Liu

The method of classical shadows heralds unprecedented opportunities for quantum estimation with limited measurements [H.-Y. Huang, R. Kueng, and J. Preskill, Nat. Phys. 16, 1050 (2020)]. Yet its relationship to established quantum…

Quantum Physics · Physics 2021-07-19 Joseph M. Lukens , Kody J. H. Law , Ryan S. Bennink

Efficiently learning expectation values of unknown quantum states via classical shadows has become an important primitive in both theoretical and experimental aspects of quantum computation. Typically, classical shadow protocols involve…

Quantum Physics · Physics 2026-05-08 Rebecca Chang , Maureen Krumtünger , Martin Larocca , Maxwell West

We introduce a method to enforce some symmetries starting from a trial wave-function prepared on quantum computers that might not respect these symmetries. The technique eliminates the necessity for performing the projection on the quantum…

Quantum Physics · Physics 2023-11-09 Edgar Andres Ruiz Guzman , Denis Lacroix

Classical shadows are an efficient method for constructing an approximate classical description of a quantum state using very few measurements. In the paper we propose to enhance classical shadow methods using bootstrap resampling methods.…

Quantum Physics · Physics 2025-11-18 Eric Ghysels , Jack Morgan

We introduce a post-processing technique for classical shadow measurement data that enhances the precision of ground state estimation through high-dimensional subspace expansion; the dimensionality is only limited by the amount of classical…

Quantum Physics · Physics 2024-06-18 Gregory Boyd , Bálint Koczor , Zhenyu Cai

Simulating large quantum systems is the ultimate goal of quantum computing. Variational quantum simulation (VQS) gives us a tool to achieve the goal in near-term devices by distributing the computation load to both classical and quantum…

Quantum Physics · Physics 2023-05-10 Kouhei Nakaji , Suguru Endo , Yuichiro Matsuzaki , Hideaki Hakoshima

Randomised measurements can efficiently characterise many-body quantum states by learning the expectation values of observables with low Pauli weights. In this paper, we generalise the theoretical tools of classical shadow tomography to the…

Quantum Physics · Physics 2026-02-05 Gregory A. L. White , Lloyd C. L. Hollenberg , Charles D. Hill , Kavan Modi

Mitigating errors in quantum information processing devices is especially important in the absence of fault tolerance. An effective method in suppressing state-preparation errors is using multiple copies to distill the ideal component from…

Quantum Physics · Physics 2025-03-26 Alireza Seif , Ze-Pei Cian , Sisi Zhou , Senrui Chen , Liang Jiang
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