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We present a systematic benchmark of out-of-distribution (OOD) detection CSFs through a representation-centric lens. Our study spans CNN and ViT backbones, multiple training paradigms, four image-classification source datasets (CIFAR-10,…

Machine Learning · Computer Science 2026-05-19 Claudio César Claros Olivares , Austin J. Brockmeier

Recent research underscores the pivotal role of the Out-of-Distribution (OOD) feature representation field scale in determining the efficacy of models in OOD detection. Consequently, the adoption of model ensembles has emerged as a…

Machine Learning · Computer Science 2024-08-19 Chenhui Xu , Fuxun Yu , Zirui Xu , Nathan Inkawhich , Xiang Chen

Out-of-distribution (OOD) detection is essential to handle the distribution shifts between training and test scenarios. For a new in-distribution (ID) dataset, existing methods require retraining to capture the dataset-specific feature…

Computer Vision and Pattern Recognition · Computer Science 2024-03-28 Meng Xing , Zhiyong Feng , Yong Su , Changjae Oh

Out-of-distribution (OOD) detection is a critical task to ensure the reliability and security of machine learning models deployed in real-world applications. Conventional methods for OOD detection that rely on single-modal information,…

Computer Vision and Pattern Recognition · Computer Science 2024-03-21 K Huang , G Song , Hanwen Su , Jiyan Wang

Background. Commonly, Deep Neural Networks (DNNs) generalize well on samples drawn from a distribution similar to that of the training set. However, DNNs' predictions are brittle and unreliable when the test samples are drawn from a…

Machine Learning · Computer Science 2022-04-01 Matan Haroush , Tzviel Frostig , Ruth Heller , Daniel Soudry

Deep neural networks are increasingly used in a wide range of technologies and services, but remain highly susceptible to out-of-distribution (OOD) samples, that is, drawn from a different distribution than the original training set. A…

Machine Learning · Computer Science 2024-04-17 Pietro Recalcati , Fabio Garcea , Luca Piano , Fabrizio Lamberti , Lia Morra

Out-of-distribution (OOD) detection is crucial for the safe deployment of neural networks. Existing CLIP-based approaches perform OOD detection by devising novel scoring functions or sophisticated fine-tuning methods. In this work, we…

Computation and Language · Computer Science 2024-11-06 Yixia Li , Boya Xiong , Guanhua Chen , Yun Chen

Out-of-distribution (OOD) detection, crucial for reliable pattern classification, discerns whether a sample originates outside the training distribution. This paper concentrates on the high-dimensional features output by the final…

Computer Vision and Pattern Recognition · Computer Science 2024-05-06 Qiuyu Zhu , Yiwei He

Out-of-distribution (OOD) detection identifies test samples that fall outside a model's training distribution, a capability critical for safe deployment in high-stakes applications. Standard OOD detectors are trained on a specific…

Artificial Intelligence · Computer Science 2026-05-14 Shawn Li , You Qin , Jiate Li , Charith Peris , Lisa Bauer , Roger Zimmermann , Yue Zhao

Out-of-distribution (OOD) detection is an important topic for real-world machine learning systems, but settings with limited in-distribution samples have been underexplored. Such few-shot OOD settings are challenging, as models have scarce…

Machine Learning · Computer Science 2023-12-27 Nikhil Mehta , Kevin J Liang , Jing Huang , Fu-Jen Chu , Li Yin , Tal Hassner

Detecting out-of-distribution (OOD) samples is crucial for ensuring the safety of machine learning systems and has shaped the field of OOD detection. Meanwhile, several other problems are closely related to OOD detection, including anomaly…

Computer Vision and Pattern Recognition · Computer Science 2025-06-19 Atsuyuki Miyai , Jingkang Yang , Jingyang Zhang , Yifei Ming , Yueqian Lin , Qing Yu , Go Irie , Shafiq Joty , Yixuan Li , Hai Li , Ziwei Liu , Toshihiko Yamasaki , Kiyoharu Aizawa

In an out-of-distribution (OOD) detection problem, samples of known classes(also called in-distribution classes) are used to train a special classifier. In testing, the classifier can (1) classify the test samples of known classes to their…

Computer Vision and Pattern Recognition · Computer Science 2023-02-06 Sepideh Esmaeilpour , Bing Liu , Eric Robertson , Lei Shu

Recent object detectors have achieved impressive accuracy in identifying objects seen during training. However, real-world deployment often introduces novel and unexpected objects, referred to as out-of-distribution (OOD) objects, posing…

Machine Learning · Computer Science 2025-11-20 Quang-Huy Nguyen , Jin Peng Zhou , Zhenzhen Liu , Khanh-Huyen Bui , Kilian Q. Weinberger , Wei-Lun Chao , Dung D. Le

The task of out-of-distribution (OOD) detection is notoriously ill-defined. Earlier works focused on new-class detection, aiming to identify label-altering data distribution shifts, also known as "semantic shift." However, recent works…

Computer Vision and Pattern Recognition · Computer Science 2024-03-20 William Yang , Byron Zhang , Olga Russakovsky

In real-world applications, machine learning models must reliably detect Out-of-Distribution (OoD) samples to prevent unsafe decisions. Current OoD detection methods often rely on analyzing the logits or the embeddings of the penultimate…

Machine Learning · Computer Science 2025-02-19 Gianluca Guglielmo , Marc Masana

Out-of-distribution (OOD) detection is crucial for the deployment of machine learning models in the open world. While existing OOD detectors are effective in identifying OOD samples that deviate significantly from in-distribution (ID) data,…

Machine Learning · Computer Science 2024-12-10 Hao Fu , Prashanth Krishnamurthy , Siddharth Garg , Farshad Khorrami

Out-of-distribution (OOD) detection is a critical task for the safe deployment of machine learning models in the real world. Existing prototype-based representation learning methods have demonstrated exceptional performance. Specifically,…

Computer Vision and Pattern Recognition · Computer Science 2026-02-06 Ningkang Peng , JiuTao Zhou , Yuhao Zhang , Xiaoqian Peng , Qianfeng Yu , Linjing Qian , Tingyu Lu , Yi Chen , Yanhui Gu

Out-of-distribution (OOD) detection holds significant importance across many applications. While semantic and domain-shift OOD problems are well-studied, this work focuses on covariate shifts - subtle variations in the data distribution…

Computer Vision and Pattern Recognition · Computer Science 2026-01-28 Francisco Caetano , Christiaan Viviers , Luis A. Zavala-Mondragón , Peter H. N. de With , Fons van der Sommen

State-of-the-art Object Detection (OD) methods predominantly operate under a closed-world assumption, where test-time categories match those encountered during training. However, detecting and localizing unknown objects is crucial for…

Computer Vision and Pattern Recognition · Computer Science 2025-06-18 Daniel Montoya , Aymen Bouguerra , Alexandra Gomez-Villa , Fabio Arnez

This paper proposes deception as a mechanism for out-of-distribution (OOD) generalization: by learning data representations that make training data appear independent and identically distributed (iid) to an observer, we can identify stable…

Machine Learning · Computer Science 2025-09-16 Anirudha Majumdar