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International Classification of Diseases (ICD) coding assigns diagnosis codes to clinical documents and is essential for healthcare billing and clinical analysis. Reliable coding requires that each predicted code be supported by explicit…

Computation and Language · Computer Science 2026-05-08 Xu Zhang , Wenxin Ma , Chenxu Wu , Rongsheng Wang , Zhiyang He , Xiaodong Tao , Kun Zhang , S. Kevin Zhou

ICD coding is the international standard for capturing and reporting health conditions and diagnosis for revenue cycle management in healthcare. Manually assigning ICD codes is prone to human error due to the large code vocabulary and the…

Machine Learning · Computer Science 2021-03-16 Youngwoo Kim , Cheng Li , Bingyang Ye , Amir Tahmasebi , Javed Aslam

ICD(International Classification of Diseases) coding involves assigning ICD codes to patients visit based on their medical notes. Considering ICD coding as a multi-label text classification task, researchers have developed sophisticated…

Computation and Language · Computer Science 2024-10-21 Bin Zhang , Junli Wang

Recent advances in transformer architectures have revolutionised natural language processing, but their application to healthcare domains presents unique challenges. Patient timelines are characterised by irregular sampling, variable…

Computation and Language · Computer Science 2025-05-26 Linglong Qian , Zina Ibrahim

Given the clinical notes written in electronic health records (EHRs), it is challenging to predict the diagnostic codes which is formulated as a multi-label classification task. The large set of labels, the hierarchical dependency, and the…

Computation and Language · Computer Science 2021-06-25 Shang-Chi Tsai , Chao-Wei Huang , Yun-Nung Chen

Clinical notes are assigned ICD codes - sets of codes for diagnoses and procedures. In the recent years, predictive machine learning models have been built for automatic ICD coding. However, there is a lack of widely accepted benchmarks for…

Artificial Intelligence · Computer Science 2023-04-28 Thanh-Tung Nguyen , Viktor Schlegel , Abhinav Kashyap , Stefan Winkler , Shao-Syuan Huang , Jie-Jyun Liu , Chih-Jen Lin

The International Classification of Diseases (ICD) system is the international standard for classifying diseases and procedures during a healthcare encounter and is widely used for healthcare reporting and management purposes. Assigning…

Computation and Language · Computer Science 2022-04-25 George Michalopoulos , Michal Malyska , Nicola Sahar , Alexander Wong , Helen Chen

Prediction of medical codes from clinical notes is both a practical and essential need for every healthcare delivery organization within current medical systems. Automating annotation will save significant time and excessive effort spent by…

Computation and Language · Computer Science 2021-07-23 Byung-Hak Kim , Varun Ganapathi

Medical coding is the task of assigning medical codes to clinical free-text documentation. Healthcare professionals manually assign such codes to track patient diagnoses and treatments. Automated medical coding can considerably alleviate…

Machine Learning · Computer Science 2023-04-24 Joakim Edin , Alexander Junge , Jakob D. Havtorn , Lasse Borgholt , Maria Maistro , Tuukka Ruotsalo , Lars Maaløe

In the context of the Electronic Health Record, automated diagnosis coding of patient notes is a useful task, but a challenging one due to the large number of codes and the length of patient notes. We investigate four models for assigning…

Computation and Language · Computer Science 2017-11-22 Tal Baumel , Jumana Nassour-Kassis , Raphael Cohen , Michael Elhadad , No`emie Elhadad

This paper addresses the challenges posed by the unstructured nature and high-dimensional semantic complexity of electronic health record texts. A deep learning method based on attention mechanisms is proposed to achieve unified modeling…

Computation and Language · Computer Science 2025-07-03 Ting Xu , Xiaoxiao Deng , Xiandong Meng , Haifeng Yang , Yan Wu

Characterization of a patient clinical phenotype is central to biomedical informatics. ICD codes, assigned to inpatient encounters by coders, is important for population health and cohort discovery when clinical information is limited.…

Method: We develop CNN-based methods for automatic ICD coding based on clinical text from intensive care unit (ICU) stays. We come up with the Shallow and Wide Attention convolutional Mechanism (SWAM), which allows our model to learn local…

Computation and Language · Computer Science 2021-01-28 Shu Yuan Hu , Fei Teng

Clinical notes are text documents that are created by clinicians for each patient encounter. They are typically accompanied by medical codes, which describe the diagnosis and treatment. Annotating these codes is labor intensive and error…

Computation and Language · Computer Science 2018-04-18 James Mullenbach , Sarah Wiegreffe , Jon Duke , Jimeng Sun , Jacob Eisenstein

Accurate diagnostic coding of medical notes is crucial for enhancing patient care, medical research, and error-free billing in healthcare organizations. Manual coding is a time-consuming task for providers, and diagnostic codes often…

Machine Learning · Computer Science 2024-12-17 Prajwal Kailas , Max Homilius , Rahul C. Deo , Calum A. MacRae

Clinical diagnosis, which aims to assign diagnosis codes for a patient based on the clinical note, plays an essential role in clinical decision-making. Considering that manual diagnosis could be error-prone and time-consuming, many…

Computation and Language · Computer Science 2021-01-28 Yichao Du , Pengfei Luo , Xudong Hong , Tong Xu , Zhe Zhang , Chao Ren , Yi Zheng , Enhong Chen

The International Classification of Diseases (ICD) serves as a definitive medical classification system encompassing a wide range of diseases and conditions. The primary objective of ICD indexing is to allocate a subset of ICD codes to a…

Computation and Language · Computer Science 2024-05-30 Xindi Wang , Robert E. Mercer , Frank Rudzicz

Clinical coding is a critical task in healthcare, although traditional methods for automating clinical coding may not provide sufficient explicit evidence for coders in production environments. This evidence is crucial, as medical coders…

Computation and Language · Computer Science 2025-04-08 Leonor Barreiros , Isabel Coutinho , Gonçalo M. Correia , Bruno Martins

International Classification of Diseases (ICD) is a set of classification codes for medical records. Automated ICD coding, which assigns unique International Classification of Diseases codes with each medical record, is widely used recently…

Artificial Intelligence · Computer Science 2022-12-12 Shi Wang , Daniel Tang , Luchen Zhang , Huilin Li , Ding Han

Clinicians may rely on medical coding systems such as International Classification of Diseases (ICD) to identify patients with diseases from Electronic Health Records (EHRs). However, due to the lack of detail and specificity as well as a…

Computation and Language · Computer Science 2022-05-19 Jingqing Zhang , Atri Sharma , Luis Bolanos , Tong Li , Ashwani Tanwar , Vibhor Gupta , Yike Guo