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Pre-trained models have been shown effective in many code intelligence tasks. These models are pre-trained on large-scale unlabeled corpus and then fine-tuned in downstream tasks. However, as the inputs to pre-training and downstream tasks…

Software Engineering · Computer Science 2022-07-26 Chaozheng Wang , Yuanhang Yang , Cuiyun Gao , Yun Peng , Hongyu Zhang , Michael R. Lyu

Current literature demonstrates that Large Language Models (LLMs) are great few-shot learners, and prompting significantly increases their performance on a range of downstream tasks in a few-shot learning setting. An attempt to automate…

Computation and Language · Computer Science 2023-06-26 Yulin Zhou , Yiren Zhao , Ilia Shumailov , Robert Mullins , Yarin Gal

The effectiveness of prompt learning has been demonstrated in different pre-trained language models. By formulating suitable template and choosing representative label mapping, prompt learning can be used as an efficient knowledge probe.…

Computation and Language · Computer Science 2022-11-01 Jinta Weng , Yue Hu , Jing Qiu , Heyan Huan

Large language models have shown that impressive zero-shot performance can be achieved through natural language prompts (Radford et al., 2019; Brown et al., 2020; Sanh et al., 2021). Creating an effective prompt, however, requires…

Computation and Language · Computer Science 2022-03-30 Gabriel Orlanski

Probing is a popular method to discern what linguistic information is contained in the representations of pre-trained language models. However, the mechanism of selecting the probe model has recently been subject to intense debate, as it is…

Computation and Language · Computer Science 2022-07-06 Jiaoda Li , Ryan Cotterell , Mrinmaya Sachan

Large language models (LLMs) can perform recommendation tasks by taking prompts written in natural language as input. Compared to traditional methods such as collaborative filtering, LLM-based recommendation offers advantages in handling…

Information Retrieval · Computer Science 2025-07-21 Genki Kusano , Kosuke Akimoto , Kunihiro Takeoka

Using prompted language models as classifiers enables classification in domains with limited training data, but misses some of the robustness and performance benefits that fine-tuning can bring. We study whether training on multiple…

Artificial Intelligence · Computer Science 2026-05-13 Sam Martin , Fabien Roger

Language models (LMs) trained on vast quantities of unlabelled data have greatly advanced the field of natural language processing (NLP). In this study, we re-visit the widely accepted notion in NLP that continued pre-training LMs on…

Computation and Language · Computer Science 2023-10-09 Zhengxiang Shi , Aldo Lipani

We propose structured prompt tuning, a simple and effective method to improve prompt tuning. Instead of prepending a sequence of tunable embeddings to the input, we generate the soft prompt embeddings through a hypernetwork. Our approach…

Computation and Language · Computer Science 2022-05-26 Chi-Liang Liu , Hung-yi Lee , Wen-tau Yih

Prevailing methods for mapping large generative language models to supervised tasks may fail to sufficiently probe models' novel capabilities. Using GPT-3 as a case study, we show that 0-shot prompts can significantly outperform few-shot…

Computation and Language · Computer Science 2021-02-16 Laria Reynolds , Kyle McDonell

Due to increasing interest in adapting models on resource-constrained edges, parameter-efficient transfer learning has been widely explored. Among various methods, Visual Prompt Tuning (VPT), prepending learnable prompts to input space,…

Computer Vision and Pattern Recognition · Computer Science 2024-05-14 Youngeun Kim , Yuhang Li , Abhishek Moitra , Ruokai Yin , Priyadarshini Panda

Large language model performance can be improved in a large number of ways. Many such techniques, like fine-tuning or advanced tool usage, are time-intensive and expensive. Although prompt engineering is significantly cheaper and often…

Computation and Language · Computer Science 2025-06-03 Philipp Schoenegger , Cameron R. Jones , Philip E. Tetlock , Barbara Mellers

Prompting is one of the main ways to adapt a pretrained model to target tasks. Besides manually constructing prompts, many prompt optimization methods have been proposed in the literature. Method development is mainly empirically driven,…

Machine Learning · Computer Science 2025-10-21 Tim Genewein , Li Kevin Wenliang , Jordi Grau-Moya , Anian Ruoss , Laurent Orseau , Marcus Hutter

We propose pre-finetuning, an additional large-scale learning stage between language model pre-training and fine-tuning. Pre-finetuning is massively multi-task learning (around 50 datasets, over 4.8 million total labeled examples), and is…

Computation and Language · Computer Science 2021-01-28 Armen Aghajanyan , Anchit Gupta , Akshat Shrivastava , Xilun Chen , Luke Zettlemoyer , Sonal Gupta

In this work, we explore "prompt tuning", a simple yet effective mechanism for learning "soft prompts" to condition frozen language models to perform specific downstream tasks. Unlike the discrete text prompts used by GPT-3, soft prompts…

Computation and Language · Computer Science 2021-09-03 Brian Lester , Rami Al-Rfou , Noah Constant

The field of prompt engineering is becoming an essential phenomenon in artificial intelligence. It is altering how data scientists interact with large language models (LLMs) for analytics applications. This research paper shares empirical…

Digital Libraries · Computer Science 2026-02-03 Snehasish Paul , Rohit Kumar , Laxman Das

Prompt-tuning has become an increasingly popular parameter-efficient method for adapting large pretrained language models to downstream tasks. However, both discrete prompting and continuous prompting assume fixed prompts for all data…

Computation and Language · Computer Science 2023-07-12 Runcheng Liu , Ahmad Rashid , Ivan Kobyzev , Mehdi Rezagholizadeh , Pascal Poupart

Finetuning large pre-trained language models with a task-specific head has advanced the state-of-the-art on many natural language understanding benchmarks. However, models with a task-specific head require a lot of training data, making…

Computation and Language · Computer Science 2022-05-23 Pride Kavumba , Ryo Takahashi , Yusuke Oda

Large language models have demonstrated surprising ability to perform in-context learning, i.e., these models can be directly applied to solve numerous downstream tasks by conditioning on a prompt constructed by a few input-output examples.…

Computation and Language · Computer Science 2023-04-03 Huan Ma , Changqing Zhang , Yatao Bian , Lemao Liu , Zhirui Zhang , Peilin Zhao , Shu Zhang , Huazhu Fu , Qinghua Hu , Bingzhe Wu

Prompt tuning is a parameter-efficient tuning (PETuning) method for utilizing pre-trained models (PTMs) that simply prepends a soft prompt to the input and only optimizes the prompt to adapt PTMs to downstream tasks. Although it is…

Computation and Language · Computer Science 2022-10-24 Xiangyang Liu , Tianxiang Sun , Xuanjing Huang , Xipeng Qiu