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Learning from repeated play in a fixed two-player zero-sum game is a classic problem in game theory and online learning. We consider a variant of this problem where the game payoff matrix changes over time, possibly in an adversarial…

Machine Learning · Computer Science 2022-02-01 Mengxiao Zhang , Peng Zhao , Haipeng Luo , Zhi-Hua Zhou

Regret minimization is a powerful method for finding Nash equilibria in Normal-Form Games (NFGs) and Extensive-Form Games (EFGs), but it typically guarantees convergence only for the average strategy. However, computing the average strategy…

Computer Science and Game Theory · Computer Science 2025-09-18 Hang Ren , Yulin Wu , Shuhan Qi , Jiajia Zhang , Xiaozhen Sun , Tianzi Ma , Xuan Wang

Counterfactual Regret Minimization (CFR) has achieved many fascinating results in solving large-scale Imperfect Information Games (IIGs). Neural network approximation CFR (neural CFR) is one of the promising techniques that can reduce…

Machine Learning · Computer Science 2022-04-20 Weiming Liu , Bin Li , Julian Togelius

Online learning algorithms that minimize regret provide strong guarantees in situations that involve repeatedly making decisions in an uncertain environment, e.g. a driver deciding what route to drive to work every day. While regret…

Computer Science and Game Theory · Computer Science 2013-09-06 Jeremiah Blocki , Nicolas Christin , Anupam Datta , Arunesh Sinha

Nash equilibrium is perhaps the best-known solution concept in game theory. Such a solution assigns a strategy to each player which offers no incentive to unilaterally deviate. While a Nash equilibrium is guaranteed to always exist, the…

Computer Science and Game Theory · Computer Science 2025-04-29 David Sychrovský , Christopher Solinas , Revan MacQueen , Kevin Wang , James R. Wright , Nathan R. Sturtevant , Michael Bowling

Bayesian games model interactive decision-making where players have incomplete information -- e.g., regarding payoffs and private data on players' strategies and preferences -- and must actively reason and update their belief models (with…

Computer Science and Game Theory · Computer Science 2024-05-24 Zuyuan Zhang , Mahdi Imani , Tian Lan

Counterfactual regret minimization (CFR) is a family of algorithms for effectively solving imperfect-information games. It decomposes the total regret into counterfactual regrets, utilizing local regret minimization algorithms, such as…

Machine Learning · Computer Science 2024-05-15 Hang Xu , Kai Li , Bingyun Liu , Haobo Fu , Qiang Fu , Junliang Xing , Jian Cheng

Counterfactual Regret Minimization (CFR) is the most successful algorithm for finding approximate Nash equilibria in imperfect information games. However, CFR's reliance on full game-tree traversals limits its scalability. For this reason,…

Computer Science and Game Theory · Computer Science 2019-10-07 Eric Steinberger

Monte-Carlo counterfactual regret minimization (MCCFR) is the state-of-the-art algorithm for solving sequential games that are too large for full tree traversals. It works by using gradient estimates that can be computed via sampling.…

Computer Science and Game Theory · Computer Science 2020-02-21 Gabriele Farina , Christian Kroer , Tuomas Sandholm

Counterfactual regret minimization (CFR) is the most popular algorithm on solving two-player zero-sum extensive games with imperfect information and achieves state-of-the-art performance in practice. However, the performance of CFR is not…

Machine Learning · Computer Science 2018-12-27 Yichi Zhou , Tongzheng Ren , Jialian Li , Dong Yan , Jun Zhu

Recent techniques for approximating Nash equilibria in very large games leverage neural networks to learn approximately optimal policies (strategies). One promising line of research uses neural networks to approximate counterfactual regret…

Computer Science and Game Theory · Computer Science 2022-10-12 Stephen McAleer , Gabriele Farina , Marc Lanctot , Tuomas Sandholm

The Nash Equilibrium (NE) assumes rational play in imperfect-information Extensive-Form Games (EFGs) but fails to ensure optimal strategies for off-equilibrium branches of the game tree, potentially leading to suboptimal outcomes in…

Computer Science and Game Theory · Computer Science 2025-08-12 Hang Ren , Xiaozhen Sun , Tianzi Ma , Jiajia Zhang , Xuan Wang

Counterfactual Regret Minimization (CFR) is the dominant algorithmic family for solving large imperfect-information games, underpinning breakthroughs such as Libratus and Pluribus in No-Limit Texas Hold'em poker. In real-time game-playing…

Computer Science and Game Theory · Computer Science 2026-05-20 Boning Li , Longbo Huang

Counterfactual Regret Minimization (CFR) is the leading framework for solving large imperfect-information games. It converges to an equilibrium by iteratively traversing the game tree. In order to deal with extremely large games,…

Artificial Intelligence · Computer Science 2019-05-23 Noam Brown , Adam Lerer , Sam Gross , Tuomas Sandholm

Regret minimization methods are a powerful tool for learning approximate Nash equilibrium (NE) in two-player zero-sum imperfect information extensive-form games (IIEGs). We consider the problem in the interactive bandit-feedback setting…

Machine Learning · Computer Science 2023-08-21 Linjian Meng , Yang Gao

Hindsight rationality is an approach to playing general-sum games that prescribes no-regret learning dynamics for individual agents with respect to a set of deviations, and further describes jointly rational behavior among multiple agents…

Computer Science and Game Theory · Computer Science 2022-06-03 Dustin Morrill , Ryan D'Orazio , Marc Lanctot , James R. Wright , Michael Bowling , Amy R. Greenwald

In game theory, imperfect-recall decision problems model situations in which an agent forgets information it held before. They encompass games such as the ``absentminded driver'' and team games with limited communication. In this paper, we…

Computer Science and Game Theory · Computer Science 2026-02-18 Emanuel Tewolde , Brian Hu Zhang , Ioannis Anagnostides , Tuomas Sandholm , Vincent Conitzer

This paper studies a variant of two-player zero-sum matrix games, where, at each timestep, the row player selects row $i$, the column player selects column $j$, and the row player receives a noisy reward with expected value $A_{i,j}$, along…

Machine Learning · Computer Science 2025-05-27 Arnab Maiti , Kevin Jamieson , Lillian J. Ratliff

Regret has been established as a foundational concept in online learning, and likewise has important applications in the analysis of learning dynamics in games. Regret quantifies the difference between a learner's performance against a…

Computer Science and Game Theory · Computer Science 2021-06-29 Georgios Piliouras , Mark Rowland , Shayegan Omidshafiei , Romuald Elie , Daniel Hennes , Jerome Connor , Karl Tuyls

Existing online learning algorithms for adversarial Markov Decision Processes achieve ${O}(\sqrt{T})$ regret after $T$ rounds of interactions even if the loss functions are chosen arbitrarily by an adversary, with the caveat that the…

Machine Learning · Computer Science 2023-10-27 Tiancheng Jin , Junyan Liu , Chloé Rouyer , William Chang , Chen-Yu Wei , Haipeng Luo