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Predictive coding is an influential theory of cortical function which posits that the principal computation the brain performs, which underlies both perception and learning, is the minimization of prediction errors. While motivated by…

Neurons and Cognition · Quantitative Biology 2020-10-13 Beren Millidge , Alexander Tschantz , Anil Seth , Christopher L Buckley

We present PredProp, a method for optimization of weights and states in predictive coding networks (PCNs) based on the precision of propagated errors and neural activity. PredProp jointly addresses inference and learning via stochastic…

Machine Learning · Computer Science 2023-05-08 André Ofner , Sebastian Stober

Temporal models based on recurrent neural networks have proven to be quite powerful in a wide variety of applications. However, training these models often relies on back-propagation through time, which entails unfolding the network over…

Neural and Evolutionary Computing · Computer Science 2019-08-13 Alexander Ororbia , Ankur Mali , C. Lee Giles , Daniel Kifer

The backpropagation (BP) algorithm is often thought to be biologically implausible in the brain. One of the main reasons is that BP requires symmetric weight matrices in the feedforward and feedback pathways. To address this "weight…

Machine Learning · Computer Science 2018-12-24 Will Xiao , Honglin Chen , Qianli Liao , Tomaso Poggio

Deep-predictive-coding networks (DPCNs) are hierarchical, generative models. They rely on feed-forward and feed-back connections to modulate latent feature representations of stimuli in a dynamic and context-sensitive manner. A crucial…

Artificial Intelligence · Computer Science 2021-09-27 Isaac J. Sledge , Jose C. Principe

Predictive coding has emerged as an influential normative model of neural computation, with numerous extensions and applications. As such, much effort has been put into mapping PC faithfully onto the cortex, but there are issues that remain…

Neurons and Cognition · Quantitative Biology 2023-03-07 Siavash Golkar , Tiberiu Tesileanu , Yanis Bahroun , Anirvan M. Sengupta , Dmitri B. Chklovskii

There is an increasing convergence between biologically plausible computational models of inference and learning with local update rules and the global gradient-based optimization of neural network models employed in machine learning. One…

Machine Learning · Computer Science 2021-11-16 Andre Ofner , Raihan Kabir Ratul , Suhita Ghosh , Sebastian Stober

The backpropagation of error algorithm (BP) is impossible to implement in a real brain. The recent success of deep networks in machine learning and AI, however, has inspired proposals for understanding how the brain might learn across…

Machine Learning · Computer Science 2018-11-21 Sergey Bartunov , Adam Santoro , Blake A. Richards , Luke Marris , Geoffrey E. Hinton , Timothy Lillicrap

Backpropagation (BP) is widely used for calculating gradients in deep neural networks (DNNs). Applied often along with stochastic gradient descent (SGD) or its variants, BP is considered as a de-facto choice in a variety of machine learning…

Machine Learning · Computer Science 2024-01-11 Ziang Li , Yiwen Guo , Haodi Liu , Changshui Zhang

Predictive coding graphs (PCGs) are a recently introduced generalization to predictive coding networks, a neuroscience-inspired probabilistic latent variable model. Here, we prove how PCGs define a mathematical superset of feedforward…

Machine Learning · Computer Science 2026-03-09 Björn van Zwol

Predictive coding (PC) offers a local and biologically grounded alternative to backpropagation in the training of artificial neural networks, yet to date, it remains slower, and performance degrades sharply as network depth increases. We…

Machine Learning · Computer Science 2026-05-21 Aleksandrs Baskakovs , Sylvain Estebe , Kenneth Enevoldsen , Kristoffer Nielbo , Chris Mathys , Nicolas Legrand

Back-propagation (BP) is widely used learning algorithm for neural network optimization. However, BP requires enormous computation cost and is too slow to train in central processing unit (CPU). Therefore current neural network optimizaiton…

Machine Learning · Computer Science 2023-08-22 Ryoungwoo Jang

Training convolutional neural networks (CNNs) with back-propagation (BP) is time-consuming and resource-intensive particularly in view of the need to visit the dataset multiple times. In contrast, analytic learning attempts to obtain the…

Computer Vision and Pattern Recognition · Computer Science 2022-02-15 Huiping Zhuang , Zhiping Lin , Yimin Yang , Kar-Ann Toh

Predictive coding (PC) is an influential computational model of visual learning and inference in the brain. Classical PC was proposed as a top-down generative model, where the brain actively predicts upcoming visual inputs, and inference…

Machine Learning · Computer Science 2025-12-18 Gaspard Oliviers , Mufeng Tang , Rafal Bogacz

It has been proposed by many researchers that combining deep neural networks with graphical models can create more efficient and better regularized composite models. The main difficulties in implementing this in practice are associated with…

Computer Vision and Pattern Recognition · Computer Science 2020-03-16 Patrick Knöbelreiter , Christian Sormann , Alexander Shekhovtsov , Friedrich Fraundorfer , Thomas Pock

Predictive Coding (PC) offers a brain-inspired alternative to backpropagation for neural network training, described as a physical system minimizing its internal energy. However, in practice, PC is predominantly digitally simulated,…

Machine Learning · Computer Science 2026-02-03 Cédric Goemaere , Gaspard Oliviers , Rafal Bogacz , Thomas Demeester

Training deep neural networks (DNNs) efficiently is a challenge due to the associated highly nonconvex optimization. The backpropagation (backprop) algorithm has long been the most widely used algorithm for gradient computation of…

Machine Learning · Statistics 2018-03-28 Tim Tsz-Kit Lau , Jinshan Zeng , Baoyuan Wu , Yuan Yao

Training deep learning networks involves continuous weight updates across the various layers of the deep network while using a backpropagation algorithm (BP). This results in expensive computation overheads during training. Consequently,…

Machine Learning · Computer Science 2021-02-23 D. Dang , S. V. R. Chittamuru , S. Pasricha , R. Mahapatra , D. Sahoo

Random backpropagation (RBP) is a variant of the backpropagation algorithm for training neural networks, where the transpose of the forward matrices are replaced by fixed random matrices in the calculation of the weight updates. It is…

Machine Learning · Computer Science 2017-12-25 Pierre Baldi , Peter Sadowski , Zhiqin Lu

Several recent studies attempt to address the biological implausibility of the well-known backpropagation (BP) method. While promising methods such as feedback alignment, direct feedback alignment, and their variants like sign-concordant…

Neural and Evolutionary Computing · Computer Science 2022-05-27 Yukun Yang , Peng Li