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Tokenization is a fundamental component of large language models (LLMs), yet its influence on model scaling and performance is not fully explored. In this paper, we introduce Over-Tokenized Transformers, a novel framework that decouples…

Computation and Language · Computer Science 2025-05-26 Hongzhi Huang , Defa Zhu , Banggu Wu , Yutao Zeng , Ya Wang , Qiyang Min , Xun Zhou

Large language models have transformed AI-assisted software engineering, but current research remains biased toward high-resource languages such as Python, with weaker performance in languages like Rust and OCaml. Since real-world systems…

Software Engineering · Computer Science 2026-04-30 Chao Jiang , Dugang Liu , Cheng Wen , Zhiwu Xu , Hua Zheng , Muhammad Sadiq , Jawwad Ahmed Shamsi , Shengchao Qin , Zhong Ming

This paper provides a comprehensive survey of the latest research on multilingual large language models (MLLMs). MLLMs not only are able to understand and generate language across linguistic boundaries, but also represent an important…

Computation and Language · Computer Science 2024-11-20 Shaolin Zhu , Supryadi , Shaoyang Xu , Haoran Sun , Leiyu Pan , Menglong Cui , Jiangcun Du , Renren Jin , António Branco , Deyi Xiong

State-of-the-art unsupervised multilingual models (e.g., multilingual BERT) have been shown to generalize in a zero-shot cross-lingual setting. This generalization ability has been attributed to the use of a shared subword vocabulary and…

Computation and Language · Computer Science 2021-12-28 Mikel Artetxe , Sebastian Ruder , Dani Yogatama

Large-scale cross-lingual language models (LM), such as mBERT, Unicoder and XLM, have achieved great success in cross-lingual representation learning. However, when applied to zero-shot cross-lingual transfer tasks, most existing methods…

Computation and Language · Computer Science 2020-12-16 Yuwei Fang , Shuohang Wang , Zhe Gan , Siqi Sun , Jingjing Liu

Contrastive learning has been successfully used for retrieval of semantically aligned sentences, but it often requires large batch sizes or careful engineering to work well. In this paper, we instead propose a generative model for learning…

Computation and Language · Computer Science 2023-06-06 John Wieting , Jonathan H. Clark , William W. Cohen , Graham Neubig , Taylor Berg-Kirkpatrick

Multilingual language models have significantly advanced due to rapid progress in natural language processing. Models like BLOOM 1.7B, trained on diverse multilingual datasets, aim to bridge linguistic gaps. However, their effectiveness in…

Computation and Language · Computer Science 2026-02-03 Santhosh Kakarla , Gautama Shastry Bulusu Venkata , Aishwarya Gaddam , Maheedhar Sai Omtri Mohan

Ensuring that Large Language Models (LLMs) generate text representative of diverse sub-populations is essential, particularly when key concepts related to under-represented groups are scarce in the training data. We address this challenge…

Computation and Language · Computer Science 2024-12-17 Sabit Hassan , Anthony Sicilia , Malihe Alikhani

Check-worthiness detection is the task of identifying claims, worthy to be investigated by fact-checkers. Resource scarcity for non-world languages and model learning costs remain major challenges for the creation of models supporting…

Computation and Language · Computer Science 2023-01-16 Ipek Baris Schlicht , Lucie Flek , Paolo Rosso

Manually constructing a Wordnet is a difficult task, needing years of experts' time. As a first step to automatically construct full Wordnets, we propose approaches to generate Wordnet synsets for languages both resource-rich and…

Computation and Language · Computer Science 2022-10-14 Khang Nhut Lam , Feras Al Tarouti , Jugal Kalita

Instruction tuning a large language model with multiple languages can prepare it for multilingual downstream tasks. Nonetheless, it is yet to be determined whether having a handful of languages is sufficient, or whether the benefits…

Computation and Language · Computer Science 2024-12-10 Shaoxiong Ji , Pinzhen Chen

Multilingual models have been widely used for cross-lingual transfer to low-resource languages. However, the performance on these languages is hindered by their underrepresentation in the pretraining data. To alleviate this problem, we…

Computation and Language · Computer Science 2023-05-29 Tomasz Limisiewicz , Dan Malkin , Gabriel Stanovsky

Subword tokenization requires balancing computational efficiency and vocabulary coverage, which often leads to suboptimal performance on languages and scripts not prioritized during training. We propose to augment pretrained language models…

Computation and Language · Computer Science 2025-08-12 Jonas F. Lotz , Hendra Setiawan , Stephan Peitz , Yova Kementchedjhieva

Vocabulary tests, once a cornerstone of language modeling evaluation, have been largely overlooked in the current landscape of Large Language Models (LLMs) like Llama, Mistral, and GPT. While most LLM evaluation benchmarks focus on specific…

Multilingual dense retrieval aims to retrieve relevant documents across different languages based on a unified retriever model. The challenge lies in aligning representations of different languages in a shared vector space. The common…

Information Retrieval · Computer Science 2025-09-12 Chao Huang , Fengran Mo , Yufeng Chen , Changhao Guan , Zhenrui Yue , Xinyu Wang , Jinan Xu , Kaiyu Huang

Bridging the significant gap between large language model's English and non-English performance presents a great challenge. While some previous studies attempt to mitigate this gap with translated training data, the recently proposed…

Computation and Language · Computer Science 2024-11-07 Wenhao Zhu , Shujian Huang , Fei Yuan , Cheng Chen , Jiajun Chen , Alexandra Birch

Adapting multilingual language models to specific languages can enhance both their efficiency and performance. In this study, we explore how modifying the vocabulary of a multilingual encoder model to better suit the Estonian language…

Computation and Language · Computer Science 2025-01-07 Aleksei Dorkin , Taido Purason , Kairit Sirts

While many languages possess processes of joining two or more words to create compound words, previous studies have been typically limited only to languages with excessively productive compound formation (e.g., German, Dutch) and there is…

Computation and Language · Computer Science 2023-10-24 Benjamin Minixhofer , Jonas Pfeiffer , Ivan Vulić

Scaling existing applications and solutions to multiple human languages has traditionally proven to be difficult, mainly due to the language-dependent nature of preprocessing and feature engineering techniques employed in traditional…

Computation and Language · Computer Science 2020-01-01 Xiaotong Liu , Yingbei Tong , Anbang Xu , Rama Akkiraju

Quantization is an effective technique for reducing the storage footprint and computational costs of Large Language Models (LLMs), but it often results in performance degradation. Existing post-training quantization methods typically use…

Computation and Language · Computer Science 2026-01-27 Everlyn Asiko Chimoto , Mostafa Elhoushi , Bruce A. Bassett
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