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It has been suggested that adversarial examples cause deep learning models to make incorrect predictions with high confidence. In this work, we take the opposite stance: an overly confident model is more likely to be vulnerable to…

Machine Learning · Computer Science 2018-02-14 Angus Galloway , Graham W. Taylor , Medhat Moussa

Counterfactual image editing is an important task in generative AI, which asks how an image would look if certain features were different. The current literature on the topic focuses primarily on changing individual features while remaining…

Computer Vision and Pattern Recognition · Computer Science 2024-03-18 Yushu Pan , Elias Bareinboim

Counterfactual explanations (CFE) for deep image classifiers aim to reveal how minimal input changes lead to different model decisions, providing critical insights for model interpretation and improvement. However, existing CFE methods…

Computer Vision and Pattern Recognition · Computer Science 2025-09-23 Townim Faisal Chowdhury , Vu Minh Hieu Phan , Kewen Liao , Nanyu Dong , Minh-Son To , Anton Hengel , Johan Verjans , Zhibin Liao

To increase the adoption of counterfactual explanations in practice, several criteria that these should adhere to have been put forward in the literature. We propose counterfactual explanations using optimization with constraint learning…

Machine Learning · Computer Science 2022-12-15 Donato Maragno , Tabea E. Röber , Ilker Birbil

Providing clear explanations to the choices of machine learning models is essential for these models to be deployed in crucial applications. Counterfactual and semi-factual explanations have emerged as two mechanisms for providing users…

Machine Learning · Computer Science 2026-01-15 André Artelt , Martin Olsen , Kevin Tierney

An adversarial example is an example that has been adjusted to produce a wrong label when presented to a system at test time. To date, adversarial example constructions have been demonstrated for classifiers, but not for detectors. If…

Computer Vision and Pattern Recognition · Computer Science 2017-12-08 Jiajun Lu , Hussein Sibai , Evan Fabry

In this paper we suggest NICE: a new algorithm to generate counterfactual explanations for heterogeneous tabular data. The design of our algorithm specifically takes into account algorithmic requirements that often emerge in real-life…

Machine Learning · Computer Science 2022-05-17 Dieter Brughmans , Pieter Leyman , David Martens

Neural Image Classifiers are effective but inherently hard to interpret and susceptible to adversarial attacks. Solutions to both problems exist, among others, in the form of counterfactual examples generation to enhance explainability or…

Computer Vision and Pattern Recognition · Computer Science 2023-10-03 Rafael Bischof , Florian Scheidegger , Michael A. Kraus , A. Cristiano I. Malossi

Data Envelopment Analysis (DEA) allows us to capture the complex relationship between multiple inputs and outputs in firms and organizations. Unfortunately, managers may find it hard to understand a DEA model and this may lead to mistrust…

Optimization and Control · Mathematics 2024-01-15 Peter Bogetoft , Jasone Ramírez-Ayerbe , Dolores Romero Morales

Machine learning models that automate decision-making are increasingly used in consequential areas such as loan approvals, pretrial bail approval, and hiring. Unfortunately, most of these models are black boxes, i.e., they are unable to…

Artificial Intelligence · Computer Science 2024-05-28 Sopam Dasgupta , Joaquín Arias , Elmer Salazar , Gopal Gupta

Explainable Artificial Intelligence (XAI) is a set of techniques that allows the understanding of both technical and non-technical aspects of Artificial Intelligence (AI) systems. XAI is crucial to help satisfying the increasingly important…

Artificial Intelligence · Computer Science 2021-11-09 Riccardo Crupi , Alessandro Castelnovo , Daniele Regoli , Beatriz San Miguel Gonzalez

Counterfactual explanations elucidate algorithmic decisions by pointing to scenarios that would have led to an alternative, desired outcome. Giving insight into the model's behavior, they hint users towards possible actions and give grounds…

Machine Learning · Statistics 2024-04-05 Susanne Dandl , Kristin Blesch , Timo Freiesleben , Gunnar König , Jan Kapar , Bernd Bischl , Marvin Wright

Post-hoc explanation methods for machine learning models have been widely used to support decision-making. One of the popular methods is Counterfactual Explanation (CE), also known as Actionable Recourse, which provides a user with a…

Machine Learning · Computer Science 2021-11-10 Kentaro Kanamori , Takuya Takagi , Ken Kobayashi , Yuichi Ike , Kento Uemura , Hiroki Arimura

To address the interpretability challenge in machine learning (ML) systems, counterfactual explanations (CEs) have emerged as a promising solution. CEs are unique as they provide workable suggestions to users, instead of explaining why a…

Artificial Intelligence · Computer Science 2026-02-03 Ming Wang , Daling Wang , Wenfang Wu , Shi Feng , Yifei Zhang

Counterfactual explanations (CE) aim to reveal how small input changes flip a model's prediction, yet many methods modify more features than necessary, reducing clarity and actionability. We introduce \emph{COLA}, a model- and…

Machine Learning · Computer Science 2026-03-02 Lei You , Yijun Bian , Lele Cao

Counterfactual explanations (CEs) provide recourse recommendations for individuals affected by algorithmic decisions. A key challenge is generating CEs that are robust against various perturbation types (e.g. input and model perturbations)…

Machine Learning · Computer Science 2026-03-02 Junqi Jiang , Francesco Leofante , Antonio Rago , Francesca Toni

Counterfactual explanation is a form of interpretable machine learning that generates perturbations on a sample to achieve the desired outcome. The generated samples can act as instructions to guide end users on how to observe the desired…

Machine Learning · Computer Science 2023-03-28 Tri Dung Duong , Qian Li , Guandong Xu

Explainable Artificial Intelligence and Formal Argumentation have received significant attention in recent years. Argumentation-based systems often lack explainability while supporting decision-making processes. Counterfactual and…

Artificial Intelligence · Computer Science 2024-05-08 Gianvincenzo Alfano , Sergio Greco , Francesco Parisi , Irina Trubitsyna

Counterfactual explanations for machine learning models are used to find minimal interventions to the feature values such that the model changes the prediction to a different output or a target output. A valid counterfactual explanation…

Machine Learning · Computer Science 2023-03-23 Shravan Kumar Sajja , Sumanta Mukherjee , Satyam Dwivedi

Due to the increasing use of machine learning in practice it becomes more and more important to be able to explain the prediction and behavior of machine learning models. An instance of explanations are counterfactual explanations which…

Machine Learning · Computer Science 2019-11-19 André Artelt , Barbara Hammer