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Extremely well! In the $\Lambda$CDM model, the spacetime metric, $g_{ab}$, of our universe is approximated by an FLRW metric, $g_{ab}^{(0)}$, to about 1 part in $10^4$ or better on both large and small scales, except in the immediate…

General Relativity and Quantum Cosmology · Physics 2014-11-17 Stephen R. Green , Robert M. Wald

The interpretation of cosmological observations relies on a notion of an average Universe, which is usually considered as the homogeneous and isotropic Friedmann-Lema\^itre-Robertson-Walker (FLRW) model. However, inhomogeneities may…

Cosmology and Nongalactic Astrophysics · Physics 2021-11-24 Michel-Andrès Breton , Pierre Fleury

Astronomical observations reveal hierarchical structures in the Universe, from galaxies, groups of galaxies, clusters and superclusters, to filaments and voids. On the largest scales it seems that some kind of statistical homogeneity can be…

General Relativity and Quantum Cosmology · Physics 2017-05-23 Krzysztof Bolejko , Mikołaj Korzyński

There is an ongoing debate in the literature concerning the effects of averaging out inhomogeneities (``backreaction'') in cosmology. In particular, some simple models of structure formation studied in the literature seem to indicate that…

Astrophysics · Physics 2009-08-12 Aseem Paranjape

We investigate the back reaction of cosmological perturbations on the evolution of the Universe using the renormalization group method. Starting from the second order perturbed Einstein's equation, we renormalize a scale factor of the…

General Relativity and Quantum Cosmology · Physics 2009-11-07 Yasusada Nambu

The standard formulation of the cosmological constant problem is based on one critical assumption---the spacetime is homogeneous and isotropic, which is true only on cosmological scales. However, this problem is caused by extremely small…

General Relativity and Quantum Cosmology · Physics 2020-08-05 Qingdi Wang

In standard perturbation approaches and N-body simulations, inhomogeneities are described to evolve on a predefined background cosmology, commonly taken as the homogeneous-isotropic solutions of Einstein's field equations…

General Relativity and Quantum Cosmology · Physics 2012-05-11 Xavier Roy , Thomas Buchert

In order to quantitatively test the ability of averaged inhomogeneous cosmologies to correctly describe observations of the large scale properties of the Universe, we introduce a smoothed template metric corresponding to a constant spatial…

We construct cosmological models consisting of large numbers of identical, regularly spaced masses. These models do not rely on any averaging procedures, or on the existence of a global Friedmann-Robertson-Walker (FRW) background. They are…

General Relativity and Quantum Cosmology · Physics 2015-05-18 Timothy Clifton

The Cosmological Principle, which states that the Universe is homogeneous and isotropic (when averaged on large scales), is the foundational assumption of Friedmann-Lemaitre-Robertson-Walker (FLRW) cosmologies such as the current standard…

Cosmology and Nongalactic Astrophysics · Physics 2025-12-15 Nathan Secrest , Sebastian von Hausegger , Mohamed Rameez , Roya Mohayaee , Subir Sarkar

We investigated the back reaction of cosmological perturbations on the evolution of the universe using the second order perturbation of the Einstein's equation. To incorporate the back reaction effect due to the inhomogeneity into the…

General Relativity and Quantum Cosmology · Physics 2009-10-31 Yasusada Nambu

In the context of second order perturbation theory, cosmological backreaction is seen to rescale both time and the scale factor. The issue of the homogeneous limit of long-wavelength perturbations is addressed and backreaction is quantified…

Astrophysics · Physics 2009-11-11 M. Parry

We construct high-precision models of the Universe that contain radiation, a cosmological constant, and periodically distributed inhomogeneous matter. The density contrasts in these models are allowed to be highly non-linear, and the…

General Relativity and Quantum Cosmology · Physics 2017-02-24 Viraj A. A. Sanghai , Timothy Clifton

We consider a cosmology in which a spherically symmetric large scale inhomogeneous enhancement or a void are described by an inhomogeneous metric and Einstein's gravitational equations. For a flat matter dominated universe the inhomogeneous…

Astrophysics · Physics 2008-11-26 J. W. Moffat

The current standard model of cosmology, the LambdaCDM model, is based on the homogeneous FLRW solutions of the Einstein equations to which some perturbations are added to account for the CMB features and structure formation at large…

Cosmology and Nongalactic Astrophysics · Physics 2012-03-14 Marie-Noëlle Célérier

An effective Lagrangian approach based on an extended Einstein-Aether (EA) model is presented and formulated in a generic non flat Fridman-Lemaitre-Robertson-Walker (FLRW) space-time. For a flat FLRW space-time, a Friedmann equation similar…

General Relativity and Quantum Cosmology · Physics 2020-06-10 Alessandro Casalino , Lorenzo Sebastiani , Sergio Zerbini

We develop a new formalism for the treatment of gravitational backreaction in the cosmological setting. The approach is inspired by projective techniques in non-equilibrium statistical mechanics. We employ group-averaging with respect to…

General Relativity and Quantum Cosmology · Physics 2009-11-06 Charis Anastopoulos

The gravitational field equations on cosmological scales are obtained by averaging the Einstein field equations of general relativity. By assuming spatial homogeneity and isotropy on the largest scales, the local inhomogeneities affect the…

General Relativity and Quantum Cosmology · Physics 2007-05-23 A. A. Coley

The cosmological backreaction arises when one directly averages the Einstein equations to recover an effective Robertson-Walker cosmology, rather than assuming a background a priori. While usually discussed in the context of dark energy,…

General Relativity and Quantum Cosmology · Physics 2009-09-10 Iain A. Brown , Georg Robbers , Juliane Behrend

We perform large-scale cosmological simulations that solve Einstein's equations directly via numerical relativity. Starting with initial conditions sampled from the cosmic microwave background, we track the emergence of a cosmic web without…

Cosmology and Nongalactic Astrophysics · Physics 2019-03-27 Hayley J. Macpherson , Daniel J. Price , Paul D. Lasky