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Reward models (RMs) are essential for aligning Large Language Models (LLMs) with human preferences. However, they often struggle with capturing complex human preferences and generalizing to unseen data. To address these challenges, we…

Computation and Language · Computer Science 2025-08-06 Anamika Lochab , Ruqi Zhang

How the brain performs credit assignment is a fundamental unsolved problem in neuroscience. Many `biologically plausible' algorithms have been proposed, which compute gradients that approximate those computed by backpropagation (BP), and…

Machine Learning · Computer Science 2022-08-05 Beren Millidge , Yuhang Song , Tommaso Salvatori , Thomas Lukasiewicz , Rafal Bogacz

Proteins are miniature machines whose function depends on their three-dimensional (3D) structure. Determining this structure computationally remains an unsolved grand challenge. A major bottleneck involves selecting the most accurate…

Quantitative Methods · Quantitative Biology 2020-11-30 Stephan Eismann , Patricia Suriana , Bowen Jing , Raphael J. L. Townshend , Ron O. Dror

We present a detailed study of the performance and reliability of design procedures based on energy minimization. The analysis is carried out for model proteins where exact results can be obtained through exhaustive enumeration. The…

Statistical Mechanics · Physics 2007-05-23 Cristian Micheletti , Amos Maritan

Score matching (SM) provides a compelling approach to learn energy-based models (EBMs) by avoiding the calculation of partition function. However, it remains largely open to learn energy-based latent variable models (EBLVMs), except some…

Machine Learning · Computer Science 2020-10-19 Fan Bao , Chongxuan Li , Kun Xu , Hang Su , Jun Zhu , Bo Zhang

Molecule synthesis through machine learning is one of the fundamental problems in drug discovery. Current data-driven strategies employ one-step retrosynthesis models and search algorithms to predict synthetic routes in a top-bottom manner.…

Machine Learning · Computer Science 2024-06-05 Songtao Liu , Hanjun Dai , Yue Zhao , Peng Liu

Energy-based models (EBMs) have become increasingly popular within computer vision in recent years. While they are commonly employed for generative image modeling, recent work has applied EBMs also for regression tasks, achieving…

Computer Vision and Pattern Recognition · Computer Science 2020-08-17 Fredrik K. Gustafsson , Martin Danelljan , Radu Timofte , Thomas B. Schön

The choice of structural resolution is a fundamental aspect of protein modelling, determining the balance between descriptive power and interpretability. Although atomistic simulations provide maximal detail, much of this information is…

Biomolecules · Quantitative Biology 2025-10-23 Margherita Mele , Raffaele Fiorentini , Thomas Tarenzi , Giovanni Mattiotti , Raffaello Potestio

A novel energy landscape model, ELM, for proteins recently explained a collection of incoherent, elastic neutron scattering data from proteins. The ELM of proteins considers the elastic response of the proton and its environment to the…

Biological Physics · Physics 2018-01-08 Robert D. Young

This review is a tutorial for scientists interested in the problem of protein structure prediction, particularly those interested in using coarse-grained molecular dynamics models that are optimized using lessons learned from the energy…

Biomolecules · Quantitative Biology 2014-01-06 N. P. Schafer , B. L. Kim , W. Zheng , P. G. Wolynes

Protein binder design has been transformed by hallucination-based methods that optimize structure prediction confidence metrics, such as the interface predicted TM-score (ipTM), via backpropagation. However, these metrics do not reflect the…

Machine Learning · Computer Science 2025-05-28 Divya Nori , Anisha Parsan , Caroline Uhler , Wengong Jin

Energy-based models (EBMs) exhibit a variety of desirable properties in predictive tasks, such as generality, simplicity and compositionality. However, training EBMs on high-dimensional datasets remains unstable and expensive. In this…

Computer Vision and Pattern Recognition · Computer Science 2023-03-09 Xiulong Yang , Shihao Ji

Protein language models have demonstrated significant potential in the field of protein engineering. However, current protein language models primarily operate at the residue scale, which limits their ability to provide information at the…

Biomolecules · Quantitative Biology 2024-06-14 Kangjie Zheng , Siyu Long , Tianyu Lu , Junwei Yang , Xinyu Dai , Ming Zhang , Zaiqing Nie , Wei-Ying Ma , Hao Zhou

Energy-based models (EBMs) are powerful probabilistic models, but suffer from intractable sampling and density evaluation due to the partition function. As a result, inference in EBMs relies on approximate sampling algorithms, leading to a…

Machine Learning · Computer Science 2020-01-10 Dieterich Lawson , George Tucker , Bo Dai , Rajesh Ranganath

Neural language models can be successfully trained on source code, leading to applications such as code completion. However, their versatile autoregressive self-supervision objective overlooks important global sequence-level features that…

Machine Learning · Computer Science 2021-06-10 Tomasz Korbak , Hady Elsahar , Marc Dymetman , Germán Kruszewski

Searching through chemical space is an exceptionally challenging problem because the number of possible molecules grows combinatorially with the number of atoms. Large, autoregressive models trained on databases of chemical compounds have…

Machine Learning · Computer Science 2025-10-24 Shriram Chennakesavalu , Frank Hu , Sebastian Ibarraran , Grant M. Rotskoff

Natural proteins fold to a unique, thermodynamically dominant state. Modeling of the folding process and prediction of the native fold of proteins are two major unsolved problems in biophysics. Here, we show successful all-atom ab initio…

Biomolecules · Quantitative Biology 2007-05-23 Jae Shick Yang , William W. Chen , Jeffrey Skolnick , Eugene I. Shakhnovich

Molecules in equilibrium follow a Boltzmann distribution, making the underlying energy landscape a physically grounded modeling objective. However, such landscapes are difficult to learn from data and, once learned, hard to sample from.…

Machine Learning · Computer Science 2026-05-19 Christoph Griesbacher , Lea Bogensperger , Andreas Habring , Thomas Pock

Motivated by the fact that forward and backward passes of a deep network naturally form symmetric mappings between input and output representations, we introduce a simple yet effective self-supervised vision model pretraining framework…

Computer Vision and Pattern Recognition · Computer Science 2023-02-06 Ze Wang , Jiang Wang , Zicheng Liu , Qiang Qiu

The structure and function of biological molecules are strongly influenced by the water and dissolved ions that surround them. This aqueous solution (solvent) exerts significant electrostatic forces in response to the biomolecule's…

Numerical Analysis · Mathematics 2015-12-29 Matthew G. Knepley , Jaydeep P. Bardhan