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Willems' fundamental lemma asserts that all trajectories of a linear time-invariant system can be obtained from a finite number of measured ones, assuming that controllability and a persistency of excitation condition hold. We show that…

Systems and Control · Electrical Eng. & Systems 2021-04-13 Yue Yu , Shahriar Talebi , Henk J. van Waarde , Ufuk Topcu , Mehran Mesbahi , Behçet Açıkmeşe

In this paper, a method to represent every input-output trajectory of a continuous-time linear system in terms of previously collected data is presented. This corresponds to a continuous-time version of the well-known Willems' lemma. The…

Systems and Control · Electrical Eng. & Systems 2023-04-03 Victor G. Lopez , Matthias A. Müller

In this letter, we provide new insight into Willems et al.'s fundamental lemma by studying the concept of universal inputs. An input is called universal if, when applied to any controllable system, it leads to input-output data that…

Optimization and Control · Mathematics 2025-06-09 Amir Shakouri , Henk J. van Waarde , M. Kanat Camlibel

We illustrate a novel version of Willems' lemma for data-based representation of continuous-time systems. The main novelties compared to previous works are two. First, the proposed framework relies only on measured input-output trajectories…

Systems and Control · Electrical Eng. & Systems 2024-05-27 Victor G. Lopez , Matthias A. Müller , Paolo Rapisarda

Based on the Fundamental Lemma by Willems et al., the entire behaviour of a Linear Time-Invariant (LTI) system can be characterised by a single data sequence of the system as long the input is persistently exciting. This is an essential…

Systems and Control · Electrical Eng. & Systems 2022-03-02 Chris Verhoek , Roland Tóth , Sofie Haesaert , Anne Koch

The fundamental lemma by Willems and coauthors facilitates a parameterization of all trajectories of a linear time-invariant system in terms of a single, measured one. This result plays an important role in data-driven simulation and…

Optimization and Control · Mathematics 2022-05-16 Jeremy Coulson , Henk van Waarde , Florian Dörfler

We provide a practical relaxation of Willems' fundamental lemma for discrete-time linear time-invariant (single-input-single-output) systems. Instead of maintaining conventional Willems' persistency of excitation condition in the behavioral…

Systems and Control · Electrical Eng. & Systems 2026-04-08 Yun Jeong Yang , Jin Gyu Lee

The Willems' fundamental lemma, which characterizes linear dynamics with measured trajectories, has found successful applications in controller design and signal processing, which has driven a broad research interest in its extension to…

Optimization and Control · Mathematics 2021-06-01 Yingzhao Lian , Colin N. Jones

Koopman operator theory and Willems' fundamental lemma both can provide (approximated) data-driven linear representation for nonlinear systems. However, choosing lifting functions for the Koopman operator is challenging, and the quality of…

Optimization and Control · Mathematics 2024-11-26 Xu Shang , Jorge Cortés , Yang Zheng

Willems' Fundamental Lemma provides a powerful data-driven parametrization of all trajectories of a controllable linear time-invariant system based on one trajectory with persistently exciting (PE) input. In this paper, we present a novel…

Optimization and Control · Mathematics 2024-12-04 Julian Berberich , Andrea Iannelli , Alberto Padoan , Jeremy Coulson , Florian Dörfler , Frank Allgöwer

The fundamental lemma by Jan C. Willems and co-workers, which is deeply rooted in behavioral systems theory, has become one of the supporting pillars of the recent progress on data-driven control and system analysis. This tutorial-style…

Optimization and Control · Mathematics 2023-05-01 Timm Faulwasser , Ruchuan Ou , Guanru Pan , Philipp Schmitz , Karl Worthmann

In Willems' behavioral systems theory, a dynamical system is identified with the set of all trajectories compatible with its laws of motion. In the linear time-invariant setting this trajectory set is a linear subspace, and its algebraic…

Optimization and Control · Mathematics 2026-05-08 Victor M. Preciado

Willems' fundamental lemma enables data-driven analysis and control by characterizing an unknown system's behavior directly in terms of measured data. In this work, we extend a recent frequency-domain variant of this result--previously…

Systems and Control · Electrical Eng. & Systems 2025-04-10 T. J. Meijer , M. Wind , V. S. Dolk , W. P. M. H. Heemels

The vector space of all input-output trajectories of a discrete-time linear time-invariant (LTI) system is spanned by time-shifts of a single measured trajectory, given that the respective input signal is persistently exciting. This fact,…

Systems and Control · Computer Science 2020-10-27 Julian Berberich , Frank Allgöwer

In this paper we investigate data-driven predictive control of discrete-time linear descriptor systems. Specifically, we give a tailored variant of Willems' fundamental lemma, which shows that for descriptor systems the non-parametric…

Optimization and Control · Mathematics 2022-02-17 Philipp Schmitz , Timm Faulwasser , Karl Worthmann

Willems et al. showed that all input-output trajectories of a discrete-time linear time-invariant system can be obtained using linear combinations of time shifts of a single, persistently exciting, input-output trajectory of that system. In…

Systems and Control · Electrical Eng. & Systems 2021-10-01 Mohammad Alsalti , Julian Berberich , Victor G. Lopez , Frank Allgöwer , Matthias A. Müller

Data-driven control uses a past signal trajectory to characterise the input-output behaviour of a system. Willems' lemma provides a data-based prediction model allowing a control designer to bypass the step of identifying a state-space or…

Systems and Control · Electrical Eng. & Systems 2024-03-25 Roy S. Smith , Mohamed Abdalmoaty , Mingzhou Yin

We consider the problem of learning the dynamics of autonomous linear systems (i.e., systems that are not affected by external control inputs) from observations of multiple trajectories of those systems, with finite sample guarantees.…

Systems and Control · Electrical Eng. & Systems 2022-09-27 Lei Xin , George Chiu , Shreyas Sundaram

Willems' fundamental lemma has recently received an impressive amount of attention in the (data-driven) control community. In this paper, we formulate a frequency-domain equivalent of this lemma. In doing so, we bridge the gap between…

Systems and Control · Electrical Eng. & Systems 2023-11-28 T. J. Meijer , S. A. N. Nouwens , V. S. Dolk , W. P. M. H. Heemels

Willems' Fundamental Lemma enables parameterizing all trajectories generated by a Linear Time-Invariant (LTI) system directly from data. However, this lemma relies on the assumption of noiseless measurements. In this paper, we provide an…

Systems and Control · Electrical Eng. & Systems 2026-04-02 Sahand Kiani , Constantino M. Lagoa
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